Mies’ Argument on the Social Origins of the Sexual Division of Labor

Mies’ Argument on the Social Origins of the Sexual Division of Labor

Maria Mies is a significant figure in the development of socialist feminism, particularly through her exploration of the social origins of the sexual division of labor. Her work critically examines how capitalist structures intersect with patriarchal systems to perpetuate women's subordination and exploitation.

## Mies’ Argument on the Social Origins of the Sexual Division of Labor

Mies argues that the sexual division of labor is not merely a reflection of biological differences but is deeply embedded in social, economic, and historical contexts. She posits that this division has its roots in both capitalism and patriarchy, which together create a system that systematically devalues women's work, particularly in domestic and reproductive roles.

### Key Aspects of Mies' Argument

1. **Capitalist Patriarchy**: Mies introduces the concept of "capitalist patriarchy," which highlights the intertwined nature of capitalism and patriarchy. She asserts that capitalism relies on the unpaid labor of women, particularly in domestic settings, to sustain itself. This labor, often categorized as "housework" or "subsistence work," is essential for the reproduction of the workforce but is not recognized in economic calculations. By failing to account for this labor, capitalism benefits from an invisible yet crucial source of support.

2. **Housewifization**: One of Mies' critical contributions is her concept of "housewifization," which describes how capitalist societies construct women's identities primarily as homemakers and caregivers. This process marginalizes women’s contributions to the economy and reinforces traditional gender roles that confine them to domestic spheres. Mies argues that this not only limits women's opportunities for economic independence but also perpetuates their subordination within both the family and society at large.

3. **International Division of Labor**: In her analysis, Mies extends her critique to the international division of labor, where she examines how globalization exacerbates gender inequalities. Women in developing countries are often relegated to low-wage, exploitative jobs within multinational corporations, further entrenching their status as "the Other" in both economic and social contexts. This exploitation is facilitated by a global capitalist system that values profit over equitable labor practices.

4. **Reproductive Labor**: Mies emphasizes the importance of recognizing reproductive labor as productive work essential for societal functioning. By redefining what constitutes valuable labor, she challenges traditional economic frameworks that prioritize profit-generating activities while neglecting caregiving and domestic responsibilities. This redefinition is crucial for understanding women's roles in both local and global economies.

## Challenging Capitalist Patriarchy

Mies' perspective challenges capitalist patriarchy by advocating for a re-evaluation of women's roles and contributions within society:

- **Recognition of Women's Labor**: By highlighting the economic significance of women's unpaid labor, Mies calls for recognition and valuation of all forms of work that contribute to societal well-being. This recognition is essential for dismantling structures that perpetuate gender inequalities.

- **Decentralization and Self-Sufficiency**: Mies argues for a shift toward more decentralized production models that prioritize local economies and self-sufficiency over global capitalism. This approach aims to empower women by providing them with greater control over their labor and resources, thus challenging the exploitative dynamics inherent in capitalist systems.

- **Ecofeminism**: In her later work, particularly with Vandana Shiva, Mies integrates ecofeminist principles into her critique of capitalist patriarchy. She argues that both women and nature are exploited under capitalist systems, advocating for sustainable practices that honor both ecological integrity and women's contributions to environmental stewardship.

## Conclusion

Maria Mies’ contributions to socialist feminism provide a critical framework for understanding the social origins of the sexual division of labor within capitalist patriarchal systems. Her arguments highlight how these structures perpetuate women's subordination while calling for recognition and revaluation of women's work across all domains. By challenging traditional economic paradigms and advocating for systemic change, Mies' work remains relevant in contemporary discussions on gender equality, labor rights, and sustainable development.

Citations:

[1] https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/2014/08/09/mies-maria-2/

[2] https://kristujayanti.edu.in/my-blog/Remembering-Maria-Mies.php

[3] https://www.radicalphilosophy.com/obituary/maria-mies-1931-2023

[4] https://www.iss.nl/en/news/passing-away-emeritus-professor-maria-mies

[5] https://capiremov.org/en/analysis/in-memory-of-maria-mies-feminist-rebelliousness-and-imagination/

[6] https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauvoir/

[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Second_Sex

[8] https://www.sjsu.edu/people/cynthia.rostankowski/courses/HUM2BS14/s0/The-Second-Sex-Introduction.pdf

Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment

 Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 

Unit IV: Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 6 hrs

• Sociological understanding on 'power': Bourdieu, Foucault and Baudrillard

• Feminist understanding on power

• Gendered debate on power and empowerment

Required readings

Geèienë, Ingrida (2002) "The notion of power in the theories of Bourdieu, Foucault and

Baudrillard," Sociologija, vol. 2, pp. 116-124.

Allen, Amy (2014) "Feminist perspectives on power," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

(Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/feminist-power/>.

Batliwala, Srilatha (2007) "Taking the power out of empowerment - an experiential account,"

Development in Practice, vol. 17(4), pp. 557-565.

March, Candida, Ines Smyth and Maietrayee Mukhapadhyah (1999) "Women's empowerment

(Longwe) framework," in A Guide to Gender Analysis Framework, Oxford: Oxfam GB, pp.

92-100.

Unit V: Feminist Methodology 8 hrs

• Feminist critique of positivism and the value for reflexivity and social change

• Emerging approaches in feminism-sensitive research

• Double consciousness and feminist standpoint epistemology

Required readings

Naples, Nancy A. (2007) "Feminist methodology." Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Ritzer,

George (ed). Blackwell Publishing, Blackwell Reference Online, 1 September 2010,

available at:

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_chunk_g978

140512433112_ss1-42, last retrieved on 20 June 2015.

Wambui, Jane (2013) An introduction to feminist research, available online at

http://www.researchgate.net/publictopics.PublicPostFileLoader.html?id=54946308d5a3f2e

0038b4698&key=fb9f096d-d0bd-4e24-87b5-61520a3ed3c0.

Harding, Sandra (1993) "Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is 'strong objectivity'? in

Linda Alcoff, Elizabeth Potter (eds.) Feminist Epistemologies, Routledge, pp. 49-82.

Brooks, Abigail (2007) "Feminist standpoint epistemology: building knowledge and

empowerment through women's lived experience," in Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber &

Patricia Lina Leavy (eds.) Feminist Research Practice, Chapter 3, Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications, pp. 53-82.

Unit IV: Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 6 hrs

• Sociological understanding on 'power': Bourdieu, Foucault and Baudrillard

• Feminist understanding on power

• Gendered debate on power and empowerment

Required readings

Geèienë, Ingrida (2002) "The notion of power in the theories of Bourdieu, Foucault and

Baudrillard," Sociologija, vol. 2, pp. 116-124.

Allen, Amy (2014) "Feminist perspectives on power," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

(Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/feminist-power/>.

Batliwala, Srilatha (2007) "Taking the power out of empowerment - an experiential account,"

Development in Practice, vol. 17(4), pp. 557-565.

March, Candida, Ines Smyth and Maietrayee Mukhapadhyah (1999) "Women's empowerment

(Longwe) framework," in A Guide to Gender Analysis Framework, Oxford: Oxfam GB, pp.

92-100.

Unit V: Feminist Methodology 8 hrs

• Feminist critique of positivism and the value for reflexivity and social change

• Emerging approaches in feminism-sensitive research

• Double consciousness and feminist standpoint epistemology

Required readings

Naples, Nancy A. (2007) "Feminist methodology." Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Ritzer,

George (ed). Blackwell Publishing, Blackwell Reference Online, 1 September 2010,

available at:

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_chunk_g978

140512433112_ss1-42, last retrieved on 20 June 2015.

Wambui, Jane (2013) An introduction to feminist research, available online at

http://www.researchgate.net/publictopics.PublicPostFileLoader.html?id=54946308d5a3f2e

0038b4698&key=fb9f096d-d0bd-4e24-87b5-61520a3ed3c0.

Harding, Sandra (1993) "Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is 'strong objectivity'? in

Linda Alcoff, Elizabeth Potter (eds.) Feminist Epistemologies, Routledge, pp. 49-82.

Brooks, Abigail (2007) "Feminist standpoint epistemology: building knowledge and

empowerment through women's lived experience," in Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber &

Patricia Lina Leavy (eds.) Feminist Research Practice, Chapter 3, Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications, pp. 53-82.

### Unit IV: **Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment**

This unit delves into various theoretical frameworks of power, focusing on sociological perspectives from scholars like Bourdieu, Foucault, and Baudrillard, and feminist understandings of power and empowerment.

#### 1. **Sociological Understanding of Power: Bourdieu, Foucault, and Baudrillard**

   - **Pierre Bourdieu** emphasizes power as tied to symbolic systems, social capital, and cultural capital. He argues that power is maintained through the reproduction of social structures, where dominant groups control symbolic power, which influences people's perceptions and behaviors.

   - **Michel Foucault** views power not as a possession but as something that circulates through discourse and institutions. His concept of **biopower** explores how modern states regulate bodies and populations through various institutions. Foucault's idea of power being productive (not just repressive) is central to understanding how power functions in everyday life.

   - **Jean Baudrillard** focuses on the idea that in postmodern societies, power is tied to simulation and media. Power becomes an illusion, sustained by media and signs rather than direct force or authority. Baudrillard argues that power operates through hyperreality, where images and symbols dominate, creating a system where the boundary between reality and simulation becomes blurred.

   - **Required Reading**: Gečienė (2002) explores these three theorists' views on power, offering a comparative analysis of their distinct but interrelated approaches to understanding power in modern society.

#### 2. **Feminist Understanding of Power**

   - Feminist theories offer a critical lens on how power operates along gender lines. **Amy Allen** (2014) outlines feminist critiques of traditional conceptions of power, highlighting how patriarchy, institutions, and social norms work to maintain women's subordination.

   - Feminist perspectives shift the focus from power as domination to power as empowerment, emphasizing how marginalized groups can reclaim agency and challenge oppressive systems. They stress the need for recognizing the intersection of power with other social factors like race, class, and sexuality.

   - **Srilatha Batliwala** (2007) critiques the use of "empowerment" in development discourse, arguing that it has been depoliticized and stripped of its radical potential. Empowerment should not just be about giving individuals more choices but transforming power relations that perpetuate inequality.

#### 3. **Gendered Debate on Power and Empowerment**

   - The **Longwe Framework for Women’s Empowerment** (March, Smyth, and Mukhopadhyay, 1999) highlights the importance of analyzing power through a gendered lens. This framework views empowerment as a process where women move from being passive recipients of development aid to active participants with control over their lives.

   - This debate engages with how empowerment can be understood not just as a top-down process but as one that requires addressing structural inequalities that reinforce women's subordination.

---

### Unit V: **Feminist Methodology**

This unit critiques traditional research methods, particularly positivism, and argues for approaches that are more sensitive to women’s experiences and committed to social change.

#### 1. **Feminist Critique of Positivism and the Value of Reflexivity and Social Change**

   - Feminist scholars critique **positivism**, the traditional scientific method that seeks objectivity and detachment. They argue that positivist approaches ignore the ways in which the researcher’s identity, position, and perspective shape the research process.

   - **Reflexivity** is the practice of reflecting on how one's own social location, assumptions, and biases influence the research. Feminist researchers stress that the goal of research should be not only to understand the world but to change it, making a commitment to social justice central to feminist methodology.

#### 2. **Emerging Approaches in Feminism-Sensitive Research**

   - These approaches involve methods that center women's experiences, particularly those of marginalized groups. Feminist researchers often use qualitative methods, such as interviews and ethnography, to capture the complexity of women’s lived experiences. They also emphasize collaboration with research participants, making them co-creators of knowledge rather than subjects.

   - **Nancy Naples** (2007) explains that feminist methodology challenges hierarchies between researcher and participant, promotes empathy, and calls for research that leads to transformative social change.

#### 3. **Double Consciousness and Feminist Standpoint Epistemology**

   - **Double consciousness**, a concept from W.E.B. Du Bois, refers to the experience of marginalized groups, particularly Black individuals, who must navigate dominant cultural norms while maintaining their own identity. In a feminist context, this idea is expanded to describe how women experience society differently based on their gender, race, class, and sexuality.

   - **Feminist standpoint epistemology** argues that marginalized groups, especially women, have a unique standpoint that allows them to see social realities more clearly. **Sandra Harding** (1993) suggests that this "strong objectivity" is a more valid form of knowledge production than traditional objectivity because it acknowledges the role of social location in shaping understanding.

   - **Abigail Brooks** (2007) builds on this by explaining how women's lived experiences are a valuable source of knowledge. She stresses the importance of building empowerment through research that is rooted in women's real-life experiences.

---

### Key Takeaways:

- **Unit IV: Power and Empowerment** explores how power is understood and contested in sociological and feminist theory, linking it to broader questions of agency, domination, and social change. Feminist perspectives on power critically engage with how power structures maintain gender inequality and how empowerment can be more than a superficial process.

- **Unit V: Feminist Methodology** challenges traditional positivist methods, emphasizing the importance of reflexivity, feminist epistemology, and methods that prioritize social justice. Feminist research aims to not only understand the world but to change it, making women’s experiences central to knowledge production.

These units equip you with the theoretical and methodological tools to critically analyze power and gender in both academic and practical contexts.

Debates on the Origins of Capitalism

 Debates on the Origins of Capitalism

6. Debates on the Origins of Capitalism

Question: Examine the debates surrounding the time-scale and geographical origins of the capitalist world-system. How do the works of scholars like Andre Gunder Frank and Barry Gills challenge Wallerstein’s view on capitalism’s European origins?

Relevant Readings: Andre Gunder Frank, “Immanuel and Me Without Hyphen”; Barry Gills, “The Continuity Thesis on World Development.”

The debates surrounding the origins of capitalism and the capitalist world-system have been significantly shaped by scholars like Andre Gunder Frank and Barry Gills, who challenge Immanuel Wallerstein’s Eurocentric perspective on capitalism's emergence. Their critiques focus on the time-scale and geographical origins of capitalism, proposing alternative narratives that emphasize a more global and interconnected historical context.

## Wallerstein’s Perspective on Capitalism

Wallerstein argues that the capitalist world-system originated in Europe during the "long" sixteenth century (approximately 1450 to 1640), following the decline of feudalism. He posits that the rise of capitalism was contingent upon specific historical developments in Europe, including the expansion of trade networks and colonialism. Wallerstein's model categorizes countries into core, semi-periphery, and periphery, emphasizing the exploitative relationships that characterize the capitalist system.

## Andre Gunder Frank’s Critique

### 1. **Rejection of Eurocentrism**

Andre Gunder Frank critiques Wallerstein’s Eurocentric view by arguing that capitalism did not originate solely in Europe. In his work, particularly in “Immanuel and Me Without Hyphen,” Frank posits that the roots of capitalism can be traced back to earlier economic systems in Asia and the Middle East. He emphasizes that these regions had complex trade networks and economic practices that predate European capitalism.

### 2. **The Five Thousand Year World System**

Frank’s concept of the "Five Thousand Year World System" suggests that economic interactions have existed for millennia, challenging the notion that capitalism is a uniquely European phenomenon. He argues that the global economic system has been shaped by a continuous interplay of various cultures and economies, with significant contributions from non-European societies.

### 3. **Focus on Dependency and Underdevelopment**

Frank's dependency theory highlights how the historical exploitation of peripheral regions by core nations has shaped global economic relations. He contends that the development of capitalism in Europe was contingent upon the underdevelopment of other regions, particularly in Latin America and Asia, which were integrated into the world economy as sources of raw materials and labor.

## Barry Gills’ Continuity Thesis

### 1. **Historical Continuity**

Barry Gills, in his work “The Continuity Thesis on World Development,” supports Frank’s critique by arguing for a continuity in global economic development that transcends the traditional Eurocentric narrative. He posits that capitalism is part of a longer historical process involving various forms of economic organization, including pre-capitalist systems.

### 2. **Interconnectedness of Global Economies**

Gills emphasizes the interconnectedness of global economies throughout history, arguing that the development of capitalism cannot be understood without acknowledging the contributions and influences of diverse cultures and regions. He challenges the notion that capitalism emerged in isolation within Europe, advocating for a more integrated view of global economic history.

### 3. **Critique of Wallerstein’s Periodization**

Gills critiques Wallerstein’s periodization of the capitalist world-system, suggesting that it oversimplifies complex historical processes. He argues that the transitions between economic systems are not as clear-cut as Wallerstein suggests, and that the interactions between different regions and economies have been more fluid and dynamic.

## Conclusion

The debates surrounding the origins of capitalism highlight significant tensions between Eurocentric narratives and more global perspectives. Scholars like Andre Gunder Frank and Barry Gills challenge Wallerstein’s view by emphasizing the historical continuity and interconnectedness of global economies. Their critiques underscore the importance of recognizing the contributions of non-European societies to the development of capitalism and the need for a more nuanced understanding of the capitalist world-system that transcends simplistic categorizations and periodizations. This broader perspective enriches the discourse on capitalism's origins and its implications for contemporary global economic relations.

Citations:

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank

[2] https://www.rrojasdatabank.info/agfrank/5000.html

[3] https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/226431

[4] https://www.proquest.com/docview/817309133

[5] https://longnow.org/ideas/understanding-the-modern-world-system-over-the-longue-duree/

[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-systems_theory

[7] https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/8357291.pdf

[8] https://www.nehrlich.com/blog/2008/06/03/world-systems-analysis-by-immanuel-wallerstein/

Colloquium on Nepal

 Colloquium on Nepal

IV.Colloquium on Nepal 

A. Piers Blaikie, John Cameron and David Seddon’s Nepal in Crisis: Growth and

Stagnation in the Periphery. Chapter 2. Pp.24-58.

B. Chaitanya Mishra: ‘Development and underdevelopment in Nepal: A preliminary

sociological perspective.’ 1987. In Chaitanya Mishra, Essays on the Sociology of Nepal.

Pp. 47-80

C. Chaitanya Mishra: ‘Nepal: Long term and lar Colloquium on linkaging the ‘Nepal

texts’ to the ge scale: History and theory.’ Pp. 18

D. Chaitanya Mishra: ‘Samrajyabad ra Nepalko bhawisys.’ Kantipur. Feb 20, 2013 (Fagun

9, 2069). P. 7.

E. Ian Carlos Fitzpatrick. Cardamom and Class: A Limbu Village and its Extensions in East

Nepal. Pp. 1-26, 183-228, 271-78

F. Bandita Sijapati and Amrita Limbu. Governing Labor Migration in Nepal: An Analysis of

Existing Policies and Institutional Mechanisms. Chapter 1. Pp.1-24

The **Colloquium on Nepal** provides a focused discussion on the unique socio-economic, political, and developmental challenges facing Nepal. By engaging with key texts, such as those by Piers Blaikie, Chaitanya Mishra, Ian Carlos Fitzpatrick, and others, this section helps bridge the global world-systems perspective with the specific context of Nepal, examining the country's **peripheral position** within the global capitalist system and the effects of internal and external forces on its development.

### A. **Piers Blaikie, John Cameron, and David Seddon: "Nepal in Crisis: Growth and Stagnation in the Periphery" (Chapter 2, Pp. 24-58)**

This text provides a detailed analysis of Nepal's **economic stagnation** and **growth challenges** within the context of its **peripheral position** in the global capitalist system. Blaikie, Cameron, and Seddon argue that Nepal’s development is constrained by a combination of **internal factors**—such as its geography and political structure—and **external pressures** from the world system.

#### Key Points:

- **Peripheral Position**: Nepal is situated in the **periphery** of the world system, meaning it is economically dependent on core countries and subject to external influences. Its economy is largely based on **subsistence agriculture** and **low-wage labor**, which makes it vulnerable to global market fluctuations and external shocks.

  

- **Internal Factors**: The authors highlight **geographical isolation**, **political instability**, and the **lack of infrastructure** as major hindrances to economic growth. These factors contribute to a stagnant economy where wealth accumulation and capital investment are difficult.

- **Dependency on External Aid**: Nepal relies heavily on **foreign aid** and **remittances**, which deepens its dependency on core nations. This creates a cycle of dependence, where Nepal is unable to build a self-sustaining economy and remains locked in underdevelopment.

- **Agrarian Crisis**: The majority of Nepal’s population is engaged in agriculture, but the sector is characterized by **low productivity** and **land fragmentation**. The agrarian structure, combined with environmental degradation and land exhaustion, exacerbates the country’s economic challenges.

The analysis emphasizes the importance of understanding **Nepal’s economic challenges** within the context of its peripheral position in the world-system, while also paying attention to domestic factors that contribute to its stagnation.

### B. **Chaitanya Mishra: "Development and Underdevelopment in Nepal: A Preliminary Sociological Perspective" (1987, Pp. 47-80)**

Chaitanya Mishra’s essay provides a **sociological perspective** on the development and underdevelopment of Nepal. Mishra examines how **class relations**, **social structures**, and **external forces** contribute to Nepal’s underdevelopment, drawing on both **world-systems theory** and **dependency theory** to frame his argument.

#### Key Points:

- **Internal Social Structures**: Mishra focuses on the **hierarchical social structures** in Nepal, particularly the **caste system** and **feudal land relations**, which perpetuate inequality and hinder development. The **elite class**, which controls much of the political and economic power, benefits from the existing system and has little incentive to promote broad-based development.

- **External Forces**: Like Blaikie, Cameron, and Seddon, Mishra highlights the impact of **external forces** on Nepal’s underdevelopment. He emphasizes Nepal’s dependence on **foreign aid**, **trade imbalances**, and **remittances** as factors that reinforce its peripheral status in the global economy.

- **Role of the State**: Mishra critiques the **Nepalese state** for failing to enact meaningful reforms that could reduce inequality and promote economic growth. He argues that the state often serves the interests of the **elite class**, perpetuating underdevelopment through policies that reinforce dependency on foreign aid and suppress social mobility.

- **Global Inequality**: Mishra connects Nepal’s underdevelopment to broader patterns of **global inequality**, arguing that the **capitalist world-system** inherently creates conditions of wealth for some nations and poverty for others. He suggests that meaningful development in Nepal would require structural changes at both the national and global levels.

### C. **Chaitanya Mishra: "Nepal: Long Term and Large Scale: History and Theory" (Pp. 18)**

In this work, Chaitanya Mishra expands on his previous analysis by taking a **long-term, large-scale view** of Nepal’s history and development. He examines how historical processes have shaped the country’s current socio-economic conditions, linking local and global forces over time.

#### Key Points:

- **Historical Development**: Mishra traces Nepal’s development back to the **pre-capitalist era**, highlighting how its position in the world system has changed over time. He argues that while Nepal has always been economically and politically marginal, its incorporation into the capitalist world-system in the 19th and 20th centuries intensified its **dependency** on external powers.

- **Colonial Legacy**: Mishra examines the role of **British colonialism** in shaping Nepal’s development, particularly through its impact on trade and **labor migration**. While Nepal was never formally colonized, it was heavily influenced by British economic and political interests in the region.

- **Theoretical Implications**: Mishra suggests that understanding Nepal’s long-term development requires a **multi-dimensional analysis** that considers both internal social structures and external forces. He argues that the **world-systems perspective** is valuable for understanding Nepal’s peripheral position but needs to be complemented by an analysis of domestic factors, such as class and state power.

### D. **Chaitanya Mishra: "Samrajyabad ra Nepalko Bhawisya" (Imperialism and the Future of Nepal) (Kantipur, Feb 20, 2013)**

In this article, Mishra discusses the continuing impact of **imperialism** on Nepal’s development and speculates on the country’s future. He argues that while traditional forms of imperialism may have declined, Nepal remains subject to new forms of economic and political domination.

#### Key Points:

- **Neo-imperialism**: Mishra argues that **neo-imperialism** continues to shape Nepal’s development through **international financial institutions**, **foreign aid** programs, and **bilateral relations** with powerful countries. These external forces often dictate Nepal’s economic policies, limiting the country’s sovereignty and ability to pursue independent development paths.

- **Future Prospects**: Mishra remains skeptical about Nepal’s future under the current global order. He argues that unless Nepal can **break free** from its dependence on external powers and reform its internal social and political structures, it is unlikely to achieve meaningful development.

### E. **Ian Carlos Fitzpatrick: "Cardamom and Class: A Limbu Village and its Extensions in East Nepal" (Pp. 1-26, 183-228, 271-78)**

Fitzpatrick’s work provides an in-depth **ethnographic study** of a **Limbu village** in Eastern Nepal, focusing on the intersections of **class** and **agricultural production**, particularly the cultivation of **cardamom**, a high-value cash crop.

#### Key Points:

- **Class Relations**: Fitzpatrick examines how the cultivation of cardamom has created new **class divisions** within the Limbu community. While some farmers have been able to accumulate wealth and social status through the sale of cardamom, others remain trapped in poverty due to **landlessness** or lack of access to resources.

- **Global Markets**: The success of cardamom farming is heavily dependent on access to **global markets**. Fitzpatrick highlights the **vulnerability** of local farmers to fluctuations in global prices, which can have devastating effects on their livelihoods.

- **Migration and Labor**: Fitzpatrick also explores the role of **labor migration** in the region, noting that many young people leave the village to work in cities or abroad. This migration has both positive and negative effects on the village economy, as remittances provide a source of income but also contribute to **social dislocation** and a lack of investment in local development.

### F. **Bandita Sijapati and Amrita Limbu: "Governing Labor Migration in Nepal: An Analysis of Existing Policies and Institutional Mechanisms" (Chapter 1, Pp. 1-24)**

This text examines the **policies and institutional mechanisms** governing **labor migration** in Nepal. Sijapati and Limbu analyze the effectiveness of current policies in managing the large-scale migration of Nepalese workers abroad, particularly to the Gulf countries and Malaysia.

#### Key Points:

- **Labor Migration**: Nepal has one of the highest rates of **labor migration** in the world, with millions of Nepalese working abroad, primarily in low-wage, high-risk jobs. Remittances from these workers are a major source of income for Nepal’s economy, but the migration process is fraught with challenges.

- **Policy Gaps**: Sijapati and Limbu highlight the **inadequacies** in Nepal’s labor migration policies, including weak enforcement of labor rights, lack of support for migrants, and **corruption** within recruitment agencies. These gaps leave many migrant workers vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.

- **Economic Dependence**: The authors argue that Nepal’s reliance on **remittances** as a major source of income creates a form of **economic dependency** that limits the country’s ability to develop more sustainable forms of economic growth.

### Conclusion

The **Colloquium on Nepal** readings offer a rich and nuanced examination of the country’s development challenges, particularly in the context of the global capitalist system. These texts draw attention to Nepal’s peripheral position in the world economy, its reliance on external aid and remittances, and the deep-rooted

Eight things that teenagers are searching for on Google

Eight things that teenagers are searching for on Google

Today's teenagers do not have to keep things hidden in their hearts. They can easily pour out what is stuck in their heart through some medium. Especially social media or Google is their reliable medium.

There are some things that are uncomfortable to ask others. Many people are looking for answers to such questions on Google. Thus, teenagers are ahead in searching for any answer from Google. Whether it is about their career or interest or about fashion trends, about sex or food, they are searching on Google. After all, teenagers are searching for the most things on Google?

1. A matter of health

At a glance, it seems that they are only searching for entertainment content on Google. However, most of today's teenagers are curious about their health. Especially they are mostly asking about depression, anxiety, fitness.

They are also searching for things like what to eat, how to control obesity on Google. Some people are learning exercise methods from Google.

2. Window shopping

Window shopping is the buzz word now. It indicates online shopping. Window shopping means looking at the details of the necessary equipment from Google without physically being present in any store.

Today's teenagers are getting information about the design and price of clothes, mobiles, laptops, watches, shoes, books, glasses, etc. from Google. According to a study, most of the teenagers find it easy to buy goods online.

3. Relationships and dating

Of course, when you reach the teenage stage, you become more curious about love and sex. They cannot do this openly with their parents or friends. That is why they have lost such questions in themselves.

From how to make a relationship with a boy or a girl, how to love, how to go on a date, they are searching for many questions related to sex on Google.

Google becomes a safe and secret medium for them to satisfy their curiosity.

4. Technology and Gamed

Teenagers are interested in new gadgets. What kind of equipment entered the world market? They are updated as often as possible. Be it mobile or anything else, they are very interested in it. They are also very interested in gaming and gaming devices.

They are looking for new tools on Google. They are asking about the features and price of a new mobile or any device. In the same way, some people have searched on Google about the way of gaming.

5. Educational support

Today's teenagers search for their education or career on Google. They also take the help of Google while doing assignments or preparing for exams.

Now many sources of educational materials can be found on the internet. They also search for things on Google that are not in some textbooks.

Also, they take help of Google to learn how to manage time, what should be the study process, how to make notes.

6. entertainment

Today's teenagers also get some information about entertainment from Google. They are getting information about movies, music, artists, events from Google.

Many people are also searching on Google about the famous Korean music band BTS, Black Pink. Similarly, they are very interested in searching for information on Google about the upcoming movies.

7. Searching for a career

This is the stage in adolescence itself, when they start to be interested in career as well as studies. What to do in the future, what to become, how to get a happy and happy life makes them more interested in their career.

That's why they are getting information about the career according to their interest on Google. At the same time, they are also looking for employment opportunities. They are more interested in where and what to do. They are also searching for opportunities on Google about jobs that can be done online.

8. News and Events

What is happening to teenagers in the world? What subject is being debated? There is also an interest in who is reacting to what. They are looking for information about the political and social things happening in the world through Google. Similarly, they are being updated on topics like technology and entertainment.

Why does chayapoto come on the face?

Why does chayapoto come on the face?

Who doesn't love clean, glowing and blemish-free skin? But sometimes due to skin diseases and sometimes due to our own carelessness, facial skin problems occur.

Elon Musk is set to become the number-one influencer on Twitter

Elon Musk is set to become the number-one influencer on Twitter

Elon Musk is a South African-born entrepreneur and business magnate who has become one of the most influential figures on Twitter. He is the CEO and co-founder of SpaceX, the founder and CEO of Neuralink, and the CEO of Tesla, Inc. He is known for his unconventional and often controversial ideas, and his use of social media to promote and discuss them.

How much meat is better to eat on Dashain or any other time? This is what the experts say | Do you eat potatoes? Let's know these are the advantages and disadvantages of eating potatoes: see

How much meat is better to eat on Dashain or any other time? This is what the experts say

Dasain has arrived in Nepalese homes. On the first day of Dasain, Dasain started after doing housework. Most meat dishes are cooked during Dasain. This is why the consumption of meat is excessive during Dasain. It is estimated that almost 10 times more meat is consumed during this time than normal time. It is customary to eat the meat brought especially on the day of Phulpati by wearing it on Dasain Bhari. However, meat consumed in this way is not beneficial for health.

It is important to tell the story of 'Once upon a time', not to forget children on mobile phones

In some advanced countries where technology has taken a leap, there is a trend of telling stories to children. It has not only saved them from mobile and laptop addiction, emotional development has also been done well. Writer Suvin Bhattarai believes that children who listen to stories from an early age will grow in love with books and develop reading culture.

If the ear mesh is pierced, how much is avoided on its own, and how much surgery is required

In the inner layer of the ear there is a mesh, through which we hear sound. If this lattice is torn or there is any problem in it, the hearing will be weak. But we don't care so much about something so sensitive. We are doing everything from waxing the ear to putting oil in the ear, which can cause a hole in the eardrum.

Sharing News on Social Media Makes People Confident - Study

 A study concluded that people become more confident when sharing news and articles on social media. According to a psychological study conducted by the University of Texas in Austin, USA, it has been found that sharing news online increases people's confidence.