Junk food is poison

 Junk food is poison

If 'junk food' is not true, can children be allowed to lick biscuits at birth? Is it absurd that mother's milk is the best food for babies? If you argue that there is no such thing as good or bad food, then you can say that there is no best food either!

Is it right to call Pratik Joshiji's food 'junk'? After reading the article, I couldn't help but write something. Anyone who googles what is 'junk food' will know. Similarly, Joshiji's statement that "there is no legal definition of junk food or junk food" was also not right for me.

Junk food is food that contains a lot of sugar, salt, and calories, (especially to increase the taste), but it either does not contain the nutrients required by the body or is very low. In another language, it is also called ultra-processed food.

Robert Lustig is an American pediatrician. After treating obesity, diabetes, and high blood pressure in American children for 20 years, he realized that this is not the only way to treat diseases. It should be prevented. That was proper food.

After this, he studied law and became a lawyer to fight against the companies that make 'junk food'. In many books, Robert Lustig has described in detail how the habit of eating "junk food" of the American people has created many problems.

Dr. If you look at Robert Lustig on YouTube, you will know how he is raising public awareness against food that is full of many chemicals that do not contain sugar, salt, or fiber, i.e., ``fat food''. So, if the word 'junk food' can be used in America, Europe, India, why not in Nepal?

Similarly, to the author's question, 'Is it correct to distinguish food as good and bad?', I say that food is good and bad. Stale, wormy, rotten food full of many chemicals, salted and sugary food can't be called 'bad' food? This word is also used in English or Hindi.

Yes, the nature of food can be different according to people's lifestyle, work, place. "High calorie foods may be suitable for athletes," says the author. It is, but it should be a meal with healthy calories. Foods made with too many 'unhealthy fats, high sugar and salt calories', 'flour products' are not good for athletes.

Telling players that ``it happens when they use junk food in moderation'' is like saying that ``it happens even if children are given cigarettes, alcohol, and drugs in moderation''. I thought that's what parents are doing now.

What I experienced from the author's article is that ``Patru Khana'' is a word used by people who call themselves nutritionists and have only superficial knowledge about food, but for thousands of years, our ancestors have gained knowledge about food and used it in their daily lives. Does their knowledge have any importance?

Our forefathers used many cultural practices regarding this, that both mind and brain are healthy when we eat healthy food according to the season. That is why we eat satu and sorbet on Akshaya Tritiya, dahi-chiura on Asar 15, khichdi, ghee and chaku on January 1.

Our forefathers used to say - 'Jai Khae Anna, Bains Hoe Mind' 'Pet Safa To Har Rog Dafa!' We use thousands of proverbs and sayings about healthy food in our daily life. If it is not true that Patru Khana means 'junk food', can children be allowed to lick biscuits right after they are born? Is it absurd that mother's milk is the best food for babies? Because if you argue that there is no such thing as good or bad food, then you can say that there is no best food either!

Yes, 'junk food' should be viewed in a negative light. In any case, it cannot be thought that 'Patru Khana' can benefit the body. The word 'Patru Khana' itself means 'bad food'. Even in the US, voices are being raised against the companies that make such paper meals.

I will write something about the data available in the US and the studies done in the books written by the journalists there after a lot of study on how 'junk food' has worsened the health of the American people. You can see about these books on the website. It can also be heard on YouTube.

Joshiji's sentence that 'food is just food, food has no moral value' is wrong. Food is not only food, it is also connected with culture, religion and lifestyle. Before a human being is born, the fetus in the mother's stomach also needs healthy food.

If the mother eats bad, unhealthy food and the mother is malnourished and anemic, the baby is also born weak. That is why it is said that pregnant women should eat healthy food. Food also has a moral value. After eating, the baby is given a healthy bed and blanket. Even if you give him 'noodles and potato chips', who would say that they contain calories?

When the author writes that the choice of food does not make you a good or bad person, I say that it does not make you good or bad, that is, but the choice of food will determine whether or not your health will be good or not (high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, many problems that come with obesity) and forgetfulness. It can also confirm things.

One wonders how an enlightened nutritionist like Joshiji could say that burgers, pizzas and phapar and millet roti can be put in the same category. Is eating millet bread, curd, mashed potatoes, chickpeas and khichdi and eating noodle chips the same thing?

My biggest concern is that feeding a malnourished child with noodles and biscuits is enough calories. It is very wrong and unnatural to say that. Would pediatricians and public health experts support such a thing?

Why did the author not consider that because of the ignorance of the Nepalese, how many poor people gave 'Patru food' to children, and they became victims of malnutrition! I would like to have a public discussion on this matter with the author and people who have similar views. Joshiji is ready!

Responding to the fact that the root cause of many diseases in the body is an unhealthy stomach, junk food and unhealthy food. In his book 'Metabolic' Lusting mentions how food companies, drug companies and junk food deprive us of being healthy.

After reading many scientific researches in this book written in simple English language, I thought it appropriate to bring forward the facts written in it to the masses.

Maybe some of the facts written in it have already been said by public health experts, but in this book, Dr. Lusting has written in a very interesting way through his experience. He himself is a pediatric and diabetes expert. He says, 'Drugs given for chronic diseases do not cure the disease, they only cure the symptoms.'

"Chronic diseases should not be cured by medicine but by food."

The habit of eating junk food is like alcohol.

"Food companies, big pharmaceutical companies and governments that ignore public health are in the same place."

This book, written keeping in mind the background of America, is very important for countries like Nepal and India. This book of more than 400 pages is a source book. It cannot be read at once, it should be read from time to time.

While reading a book, we experience how the things written in it are compatible with us. "If we don't change the style of food, no matter how much hospitals, tools and medicine are developed, many health diseases will not decrease", it is said in many places in the book.

Dr. Lusting writes, "In America, 62 percent of the food available in large stores is junk food." There are many colors mixed in them and we are gradually getting poisoned by such foods. Diseases such as diabetes, high blood pressure, fatty deposits in the liver, cancer, amnesia etc. are not transmitted by such food. One way to solve such problems is for the community and individuals to eat food prepared in a natural way as much as possible. It will help us to fight epidemics like Covid by increasing our disease fighting power. He has written in his book - "Doctors and other health workers do not talk about nutrition."

Dr. Lusting first studied science, graduated. And studied medicine. He became a pediatrician. He then worked on the problem of childhood obesity in America. As a hormone expert, while solving children's problems, he experienced - 'There are many problems that cannot be solved by medicine alone. Children's obesity and thyroid problems cannot be solved only with the knowledge studied in college.' And he started treatment in a new way.

While working, he experienced how sugar, other sugary substances, junk food cause problems in the liver, it increases the chances of cancer and dementia. It was based on real research and not just his own experience. That is why he clearly said, ``You should eat this kind of food which keeps the liver healthy and relaxes the stomach. Eating like this is considered to be a real meal.

Owners of various types of junk food and food factories hide the fact that commercial food is unhealthy. All foods are naturally healthy. In order to preserve the food for a long time by extracting the cheap fibrous material (outer skin) from the same food, the leafy food is extracted from the factory by mixing many chemicals. After eating food prepared in this way, our liver becomes unhealthy. If there is no fibrous material, there is a possibility of stomach upset and infection. (Page 8)

While writing this book, he has mentioned 1,54 sources, mentioning all those sources in the book makes the size of the book more expensive, so all those sources have been added to his website.

In spite of having the best doctors, many hospitals, modern laboratories for surgery, etc. in America, are the American people healthy?' In fact, among other highly developed countries, America has more diabetes problems than any other country. Similarly, America is in the top 5 countries with dementia, cancer and heart disease. The reason for all this is food and lifestyle.

In one place of his book, he has written - "During the covid epidemic, Dr. Fauci did a very good job. But I am angry with him about one thing. He never spoke about the importance of food in fighting the infection of covid. If he had spoken about this, there would have been a very positive impact on the community.

In what condition is endoscopy done?

 In what condition is endoscopy done?

Endoscopy is a name that many people are hearing. It is a Greek word, which means to look within. Endo means within, and scope means to examine or see.

Endoscopy is the process of examining the inside of the body without making a wound. In which an endoscope (instrument) is used to closely observe the condition of the internal part of the body. This device consists of a long, thin flexible tube. Light and camera are connected to the tube. After injecting it through the mouth, what has happened in the esophagus, stomach, etc. can be clearly seen on the monitor.

Types of endoscopy

Endoscopy can be done in different parts of the body. Endoscopy is named after the organs.

Gastroscopy: Gastroscopy quickly detects diseases of the esophagus, stomach and small intestine. It detects swelling, ulcers and tumors in these organs.

Colonoscopy: Colonoscopy identifies rectal disease problems. Colonoscopy is a method of checking the internal condition of the anus and the condition of the large intestine by inserting a tube through the anus.

(Colonoscopy examines the lower part of the stomach, while endoscopy examines the upper part of the stomach. Both of these procedures are the same, but the name and the part of the body to be checked are different.)

Bronchoscopy: It detects problems in the lungs. It identifies various respiratory system and other lung-related problems such as tumors, infections, and breathing problems.

Cytoscopy: It detects urinary problems like urinary tract, blood in urine and infection.

Neuroendoscopy: It detects brain and spine problems such as hydrocephalus, tumors, and various neurological problems.

In what cases is it recommended?

Endoscopy is recommended for two reasons. One is to check based on the symptoms reported by the patient and the other is to see during surgery.

When there is a problem in swallowing food, when there is pain in the stomach for a long time, when there is frequent vomiting and when there is blood in the stool and urine, endoscopy is advised to find out the cause.

Endoscopy is also used in the process of removing bleeding ulcers, tumors or cancer.

Endoscopy is done as needed even if no organ is clearly reported on X-ray.

Diagnosis according to disease

-Gastroesophageal reflux: This is a chronic disease, in which stomach acid reaches the esophagus and damages the inner layer. The condition of the esophagus can be known through endoscopy.

- Nodule: There is a lump around the stomach or esophagus. And, if such a lump grows, it can be seen through endoscopy. It can be understood whether there is a risk of cancer or not by its size. According to which the treatment is decided.

— Esophageal swelling: If the esophageal vessels are larger than normal and swollen, endoscopy helps to see the enlarged vessels, assess their size and severity.

- Abdominal swelling: Causes of abdominal swelling can be seen through endoscopy. Based on this insight, a treatment plan for the swelling can be made.

Stomach ulcer: Stomach ulcer is also known as peptic ulcer. Endoscopy helps in the diagnosis and treatment of peptic ulcers.

-Gastroesophageal stricture: The esophagus or the inside of the stomach becomes narrow for some reason. Endoscopy aids in diagnosis by imaging the gastroesophageal site.

How is it done?

- In this process, it is done in Khalipet. At first, the patient is placed on a bed.

— A monitor is attached to monitor blood pressure and heart rate.

- Then local anesthesia is given. Anesthesia can be given in the mouth to numb the throat for endoscopy. (A camera and light are attached to the tip of the endoscope.)

After that, the endoscope is placed in the mouth and swallowed. A slight pressure may be felt during this process. At this time the breathing process does not stop. And, they are made to sit without speaking.

- While the endoscopy is going down the esophagus to the intestine, the digestion condition is viewed directly from the monitor through the camera.

- After the examination or the necessary procedure is completed, if the meat has grown, the surgical instrument to remove it is inserted through endoscopy. If cancer is suspected, a small piece is taken for biopsy.

After this, the endoscope is gradually removed from the mouth.

Is there pain in this process?

There is no pain due to local anesthesia. However, some may feel bearable pain.

Also, it takes up to 3 minutes from start to identify the problem. If surgery is to be done together, then it should be done after observing the condition for half an hour.

Risk

- Flatulence.

- Light bleeding.

- There may be an infection in the part where it is done.

- A hole in the stomach, esophagus or intestine,

If you see these symptoms, you should go to the hospital immediately.

How much does it cost?

5 to 6 thousand for endoscopy and 7 to 9 thousand for colonoscopy in government hospitals. Fees may vary depending on the hospital.

Similarly, an average of 2,000 for endoscopy and 4,000 for colonoscopy in government hospitals.

advantage

— The camera used in endoscopy takes a clear picture of the internal organs.

- Detects internal organ problems without pain without making a big incision.

- Surgery and biopsy of suspected cancer can be done at the same time.

What is MRI, why is it done?

 What is MRI, why is it done?

If there is a wound in our body or a bone is broken for some reason, we can predict the problem by looking at it. Because these things happen before our eyes. But when any part inside our body is damaged. Then some diseases may be hidden inside the body.

In this case, how can the problem that cannot be seen with the eyes be detected?

Medical devices like MRI have been invented to detect such hidden diseases.

What kind of medical equipment is MRI?

MRI is a medical device that uses magnetic energy to show the state of the body in a similar image with the help of a computer. The full form of MRI is Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

In what situation is it used?

Monitoring MRI is used to identify and treat problems in the body from head to toe.

- To clearly identify diseases related to spine, joints and bones

– To identify diseases related to the heart

- To detect the risk of breast cancer

- To detect brain problems (seeing areas of damage without blood supply after stroke, epilepsy, due to persistent headache)

- To diagnose uterine and liver cancer

- To detect uterine abnormalities in women undergoing infertility treatment

- To evaluate the cause of pain in women with endometriosis

- To diagnose ulcers, tumors or other diseases in different parts of the body

The MRI test is done under the supervision of a technician. Which is later reported by the radiologist.

Before the MRI

MRI is an OPD procedure. So there is no need to rush. All the instructions are given before starting the test. For example, it is advised not to sit in one position. Because the picture may be blurry if it is slightly shaken.

Bandages can sometimes be applied to keep the patient stable. MRI is also done under anesthesia for those who cannot remain still for a long time.

A sequence can run for several minutes and at each stage a different machine sounds. This is already mentioned.

Before starting this procedure, you should change into a hospital gown. If you are wearing items made of metal, you should remove them.

During an MRI

First of all, the patient is laid on the table. Slowly the table moves towards the round magnet tube. You have to sit still inside the MRI equipment until the required picture is taken.

During this period, technicians stay at a safe distance. The details shown by the MRI are viewed and collected on the computer. Patients can also communicate from inside with the help of a microphone. Once the test is complete, the technician looks at the image from the MRI to determine if more is needed.

If there is a situation where MRI is required during pregnancy, it should be done only with special precautions.

How long is the process? How easy is it?

This process may take time depending on the problem. The process may take a minimum of 15 minutes to a maximum of 50 minutes. It may be difficult for some people to be patient.

How does it work?

Most of the human body is made up of water. MRI works by reacting between this water, magnet, radiowave, gradient inside the body. Some part of each hydrogen (water inside the body) atom acts like a magnet.

While sleeping in the machine, the magnetic field temporarily rearranges the body's water molecules. At this time the magnetic field is activated. Radio waves receive signals from these arranged atoms. This magnetic field is transmitted at a certain frequency with the help of a gradient.

With the help of a computer connected to the machine, the image of the MRI scan is created. It must remain in the machine for a limited period of time for accurate pictures.

Who analyzes the MRI report?

Only a trained radiologist or physician can analyze the MRI report to assess the health condition and proceed with the treatment process.

Nowadays, even if there is a small problem, there are also those who do MRI in Hachuwa. MRI may not be the only safe option in all problems. In some cases, CT scan may be more effective than MRI.

In this case, you should always consult a qualified doctor to be safe from any kind of unexpected problem.

advantage

An MRI scan is a painless imaging technique. It has no risk of harmful radiation. Soft tissue structures of the body such as the brain, spine, joints, cancer, heart, liver and many other organs can be identified more clearly through MRI images than through other methods.

What is the difference between CT scan and MRI?

Both of these show the image inside the body. The difference between the two is that MRI uses magnetic and radio waves to take pictures inside our body, which does not involve radiation. MRI can clearly show the condition of soft tissues that cannot be shown even by CT scan. MRI takes a lot of time.

While City Scan works with the help of X-ray. In this, the condition of the body can be seen with the help of radiation. This procedure is completed in a short period of time and is less expensive than MRI.

Disadvantage

MRI cannot be done if metal is installed inside the body. The sound coming during the scanning can create a kind of fear while inside. Some people may experience panic and suffocation as if they are in a cave.

How long does it take to get the MRI results?

MRI results depend on how common or complex the health problem is. After the test, if the result is normal and no problem is found, the MRI report is given in 24 hours.

If there is a problem, more complicated, then the result will come only after consultation with other doctors. This may take time. In the same way, the report may come in a short time in private hospitals where the availability of skilled doctors is more.

How much does it cost?

MRI machine is an expensive equipment. Therefore, the test fee is naturally expensive. In this, government and private hospitals set fees in their own way. MRI test fee starts from 8000 in Terti Teaching Hospital.

Conditions where MRRE should not be performed

– When an implanted pacemaker is placed

– Cochlear implants

– Any other type of iron-based metal implant

When was MRI equipment introduced in Nepal?

MRI equipment was introduced in Nepal in the year 2046, which was the first army hospital to start its service. At that time there was a low quality machine. Gradually, private hospitals began to operate services including MRI. In the year 2058, MRI was introduced in the University Teaching Hospital.

Similarly, it was invented in 1973 for the first time in the world. Its inventors are Paul Lautber, Peter Mansfield and Raymond Damadian.

In 1973, Paul created the MR image. At that time he had tested on animals. After further improvement, in 1977, Peter Mansfield conducted an MRI of a human finger and the results were obtained.

Then Raymand introduced MRI to detect serious diseases like cancer in humans.

Why is it harmful to drink tea that has been boiled for a long time?

 Why is it harmful to drink tea that has been boiled for a long time?

Starting the day with a sip of sweet tea is a common practice in South Asian countries including Nepal and India. Drinking tea is very common in these countries. There are also different ways of making tea according to geography and climate. Every person makes tea according to his taste and enjoys it.

According to an article published in Navbharat Times, every house in India makes a lot of milk tea. The same applies to Nepal. Most people follow this one method of making tea, steeping the tea leaves in water and boiling them for a long time.

Many people think that if tea is boiled for a long time, its taste will be sweet. Some people also boil milk and tea leaves together. But many people do not know that boiling tea for a long time is harmful to health.

According to Indian nutritionist Shikha Aggarwal Sharma, there are many benefits of properly brewing tea. Drinking properly brewed tea helps to increase immunity, reduce weight, and control blood sugar levels. But since tea leaves contain caffeine, boiling them for a long time is harmful, says nutritionist Agarwal.

Risk of cancer

According to experts, tannins are abundant in tea. It is a group of polyphenolic biomolecules, which are found in fruits, vegetables, nuts, wine and tea. Tannin is a molecule that is abundant in tea and coffee. It binds together protein, cellulose, starch and minerals. As a result, the body becomes deficient in iron. Boiling tea for more than four minutes increases the amount of tannin, which inhibits iron absorption. In addition, if the tea is boiled too much, the nutrients in the tea will also decrease. Tea cooked in this way increases acidity in the body. If you drink too much of this tea, it also causes the risk of cancer.

Nutrients are low

Nutrients and minerals are found in tea leaves. It contains flavonoids, catechins, polyphenols, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, zinc, calcium and fluoride. According to experts, boiling tea for a long time reduces the nutrients found in tea leaves and milk. Vitamin B12 and C found in it are also low.

Inhibits iron absorption

According to experts, if the tea is boiled for a long time, the tannin content in it is reduced. This element is found in some fruits, vegetables and nuts. Boiling tea for a long time will hinder the absorption of iron. Which can reduce the amount of blood in the body.

Stomach problems

Boiling tea leaves and milk for a long time destroys the protein found in milk. Because of this, due to problems in digesting milk, stomach ache, acidity problem, flatulence, gas filling may occur. After boiling the tea with milk for a long time, it will smell bitter even after drinking it.

Too much boiling of tea leaves and milk together is harmful

At high temperature, a chemical reaction takes place with milk's lactose protein. If you drink it in excess, it will produce harmful substances in the body. If these two are mixed and boiled for a long time, a substance called acrylamide can be formed in milk. It is high in carbohydrates. Acrylamide can also cause cancer.

So what is the right way to make tea?

According to experts, boiling tea leaves in high-temperature water for two minutes increases the amount of polyphenols found in them. Boiling more than this will make the quality of the tea worse.

There is no benefit to over-boiling, it makes the tea taste bitter. To increase the taste and benefits of tea, it is important to follow the right method of making tea.

The right way to make tea

– Boil a pan of water and again turn off the gas (any means of fire).

- Put a teaspoon of tea leaves in it and cover it for three to four minutes.

- Now add a little milk and sugar according to your taste and enjoy the tea.

Is eating too many eggs a problem in summer?

 Is eating too many eggs a problem in summer?

Eggs are high protein and nutrient rich foods. Eggs are an indispensable diet for gym or physical exercisers. But doctors say that eating too many eggs in summer can be harmful to health.

As egg is a natural heat enhancer, it can also cause digestive problems. Therefore, excessive consumption of eggs in the summer season can also cause heat stroke. Eggs contain protein, vitamins B and D and other important nutrients, so eating one or two eggs in summer is enough.

By eating two eggs with the yolk part, the body gets the necessary nutrition. But since you have a habit of eating a lot of eggs every morning, you must be careful. Eating too many eggs has a negative effect on health.

Increases heat

Since eggs are high in protein, they heat naturally. Therefore, eating eggs in hot weather makes you feel more hot. Excessive consumption of eggs in summer can lead to heat stroke as well as bleeding from the nose.

Digestive problems

Eating more eggs can also affect the digestive process. Because of this, indigestion, stomach upset and gas can be a problem. Some people may have problems such as stomach ache, vomiting.

Dehydration problems

In summer, the body also feels lack of water. Eating eggs can increase the problem of dehydration. After eating eggs, as the body temperature increases, sweat is produced more. Due to this, the problem of dehydration can increase.

May be allergic

Eating too many eggs in the summer can cause allergy problems in some people. Due to which the skin can also cause various itching diseases.

Cholesterol may increase

Egg yolk contains high amount of cholesterol. Patients with already high cholesterol should not eat eggs. It can also increase the risk of heart disease.

Vaginal discharge during pregnancy, what is the reason?

 Vaginal discharge during pregnancy, what is the reason?

60 to 65 percent of women experience excessive vaginal discharge during pregnancy. Thus, some women are worried when vaginal discharge is excessive. In addition, they may panic when foul-smelling liquid comes from the vagina. In this case, many women may wonder how much vaginal discharge is normal or abnormal.

Five similar questions about vaginal discharge, online news, obstetrics and gynecology specialist Dr. Sunita Vyanjankar has kept it.

What is vaginal discharge?

The liquid that flows from the vagina is called vaginal discharge, which keeps the vagina clean. Protects from external bacterial infection.

Vaginal discharge changes according to a woman's physical condition. For example, the menstrual cycle and pregnancy may have different types of discharge. Which varies from person to person. Some may have more, some may have less.

How common is vaginal discharge during pregnancy?

Prosterogen hormone levels are high during pregnancy. Therefore, it is normal to have a little more vaginal bleeding. Vaginal discharge does not allow infection in the vagina. Such shrawa protects the vagina.

A thin and milky white liquid with a slight odor is seen in early pregnancy.

Vaginal discharge can also increase in the last week of pregnancy. At that time, thick and pink liquid can be seen. Which gradually increases. And, it continues throughout pregnancy. It is a sign that the baby is ready to be born, which is seen before the onset of labor. Vaginal discharge during pregnancy is called Leukorrhea. It looks clean and white. And, it is odorless. Which is not considered harmful. This is normal.

But in some cases, abnormal vaginal discharge can occur. If it is green, brown in color, very smelly, cheese-like and full of liquid. Such vaginal discharge can cause itching and pain around the vagina.

The vagina contains beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus. When the balance of these bacteria is disturbed, bad bacteria take their place. And, there may be abnormal vaginal discharge. Genital infection and the use of any medicine can also cause it.

What are the symptoms of abnormal vaginal discharge? What is the probability of complications?

Suddenly vaginal discharge increased. And, if the color is different, you should show it to the doctor. If the fluid like water is continuously flowing, then it should be understood that there is pain before delivery.

Abnormal vaginal discharge can also occur if two infections such as 'vaginal thrush' and bacterial vaginosis are seen.

Vaginal thrush can be caused by a fungal infection (thrush), which looks thick and white like curd. Which makes the vagina itchy and painful. But it does not harm the fetus.

Similarly, bacterial vaginosis causes an infection in the vagina due to an imbalance of micro-organisms around the genitals. When infected, gray or green discharge is seen. Which smells like fish. This discharge causes itchiness and discomfort. Which can cause premature pain.

Bacterial vaginosis increases the risk of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV AIDS, Trichomonas vaginalis and vaginal candidiasis.

Vaginal candidiasis is an infection seen in pregnancy, which can occur when the Candida species overgrow. The risk of infection is high in pregnant women who have been treated with strong antibiotic drugs, HIV/AIDS, diabetes and immunocompromised pregnant women.

In case of vaginal candidiasis, there is not only discharge from the vagina, but also pain and itching in the vaginal tract. Also, complications such as miscarriage, low birth weight and premature birth may appear due to this.

Blood mixed discharge or bleeding during pregnancy is a complicated problem of how many?

One in three women experience light bleeding during the first trimester of pregnancy, which is normal. If some people experience discharge even after that period, then you should definitely not stay silent.

Bleeding continues even after the first trimester. And, if it is too much, you have to go to the hospital immediately. Because excessive bleeding can be a sign of miscarriage.

Likewise, bleeding may occur if the cervix covers the entire cervix. After 20 weeks, such a problem can be seen. Which is not that rare. In this way, when the mucus covers the lower part of the uterus, it becomes a risk for both the mother and the baby. Also, if there is excessive abdominal pain and bleeding before 37 weeks, the baby may be born prematurely.

How to stop bleeding during pregnancy?

Although any type of bleeding cannot be stopped during pregnancy, regular blood tests should be done. It can help to determine the amount of blood in the body and the need for blood transfusion during pregnancy. And, in this way, blood tests from time to time can identify whether it is just a normal problem or there is any possibility of bleeding.

- If there is an infection in the vagina, the doctor can prescribe antibiotics or other medicines keeping in mind the pregnancy. These medicines prevent the spread of infection. And, it reduces abnormal vaginal discharge.

- Tampons should not be used during pregnancy.

- Discharge absorbing panty liner should be worn.

- The vagina should be kept dry.

-After urinating or defecating, the genital area should be wiped from front to back.

- Instead of wearing tight jeans and nylon panties, you should use cotton.

- Probiotic foods and complementary foods that are safe to consume during pregnancy should be consumed. Which prevents the balance of bacteria in the vagina from getting worse.

Drinking too much cold coffee is harmful to health

 Drinking too much cold coffee is harmful to health

It is very hot time now. The body and face are sweaty. In this case, the mind looks for a cold drink. Lassi and juice are preferred by many in cold drinks.

Cold coffee is also the choice of many people these days. Connoisseurs of cold coffee consume it four to five times a day. That's why many people have this addiction.

In this case, the question arises, can it be safe to drink too much sweet coffee in summer?

If you have the habit of drinking cold coffee daily and drinking it several times a day, it is not considered good for your health. It contains excessive amounts of caffeine and sugar. Due to this, drinking more in hot weather can lead to dehydration, digestive problems and increased sugar levels.

-Drinking very cold coffee makes you urinate more. As a result, the body lacks water and may suffer from dehydration. Because coffee contains too much caffeine.

- On the one hand, caffeine and the extreme cold of the refrigerator can cause digestive problems.

Also read this

What are the health problems of drinking too much tea and coffee?

- If sugar is used in cold coffee, it increases blood sugar and affects the weight of the person.

- In summer, the temperature increases and sleep becomes less. In this case, drinking cold coffee keeps the brain stimulated by the caffeine in it. Therefore

It can also be difficult to sleep at night.

- If you have high blood pressure, it is better not to drink it. Because drinking too much also affects the blood pressure level.

- Some iced coffees contain high-calorie cream, milk and other flavors. Eating too much of it can lead to weight gain and digestive problems.

The right way to drink cold coffee

- Drink only once or twice a day.

-Drink it before evening and put little or no sugar in it.

- Drink water one hour before drinking coffee.

Coffee: Friend of loneliness

It is continuously raining. The weather is cold. How about drinking hot coffee right now?

There is a mood of escaping from the crowd, noise, family, work and dealings and being absorbed in oneself. How about sitting in a secluded place and enjoying coffee?

Coffee is not only a drink that quenches thirst. It is also a friend of loneliness. when you are alone There are no friends to gossip, no relatives to gossip about. There is no work to be done immediately. What do you do now? He sits sipping hot coffee. Whether it is to kill time or to take a break from the hectic daily life, you sip coffee.

In bygone days it was a favorite drink of the elite. But now coffee is for everyone. This is a drink easily available in most kitchens. Also, coffee culture is also very popular in the city now. Coffee houses are operating in places. Coffee connoisseurs are also increasing.

There are not few people who drink coffee regularly, not only occasionally. There is not a small group of people who get excited when they say coffee. Some of them are not even in the mood to work without drinking coffee.

According to a study by Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, the amount of caffeine in coffee is high. Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system. As a result, it helps fight fatigue and increase energy levels. That's why some people feel a different energy in their body after drinking coffee. However, too much caffeine is harmful to the body.

Neurologist Dr. According to Ram Koirala, certain elements in coffee help the brain to concentrate. That's why many poets, writers, thinkers have made it like a friend. "The antioxidants present in it benefit the brain," he said.

"Coffee is high in antioxidants," says nutritionist Uma Koirala, "so drinking coffee in limited quantities is said to be beneficial."

According to a report published by a nutritionist at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, drinking coffee in limited amounts is beneficial for the body. Some elements found in coffee help to reduce liver, heart and skin problems. It is also said to protect against the possible risk of Alzheimer's.

It has been written in various medical journals that drinking coffee regularly reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes. Consuming coffee in the right amount is said to protect against the risk of colon cancer. It is also specified how much coffee to drink daily, according to which it is mentioned that it is appropriate to drink up to two cups of coffee a day.

"But since there is a problem with diabetes, it is better to drink it after consulting a doctor," says nutritionist Uma.

Drinking too much is harmful

There is a proverb in Nepali, if there is too much, even nectar becomes poison. Nutritionists say the same about coffee. There are some elements in coffee which are beneficial for health. However, drinking too much coffee does more harm than good, they said.

They say that especially if the amount of caffeine in coffee is high, it will cause harm. It is said that those who have a chronic illness or are undergoing treatment for any disease should only drink coffee after consulting a doctor. Drinking too much coffee can cause problems like insomnia, anxiety, heartburn.

Who is not suitable for?

Nutritionist Koirala says that people with high cholesterol, people with heart disease, and people with heartburn should avoid coffee as much as possible. He says that anxiety patients and people with stomach related problems like gastric should not eat it.

It is better not to eat coffee because some people get headaches, while some people get more headaches, vomiting, and diarrhea. Similarly, doctors advise pregnant women not to drink coffee.

Is yogurt the best drink?

 Is yogurt the best drink?

How is curd made? Who learned to make such a best drink? These are interesting questions. Dahi is mentioned in mythological texts. It is mentioned that Lord Krishna stole curd and ate it as a child.

It is mentioned in a BBC report that the trend of curd started from the European country Bulgaria. According to the report, nomadic people learned to make curd four thousand years ago.

At that time they used to raise milk animals. There was no method of storing milk. So the remaining milk was kept at a certain temperature. If kept like this, the milk would turn into curd after some time. According to a BBC report, the seasonal temperature in Bulgaria was very favorable for curdling.

Yogurt making took place at different times in Central Asia and the Middle East. A special strain of bacteria is found in Bulgaria for curdling. Bulgarian scientist Stamen Grigorov was teaching at Geneva University in Switzerland at that time. He researched and studied how yogurt freezes. When milk is kept at a certain temperature for a certain period of time, then bacteria will grow in it. Due to the said bacteria, milk is converted into curd.

What is found in curd?

According to nutritionist Leel Bahadur Nepali, yogurt contains high quality fat, protein, calcium, potassium, water, iron carbohydrates, phosphorus, selenium and various vitamins (vitamins A, B, C, K, B12 and B2).

Similarly, yogurt contains probiotic protein, it keeps the body cool and provides coolness to the body. Also, it increases the ability of digestion and increases immunity.

How is curd made?

After boiling the milk until it thickens well, it should be cooled and stored as needed. After leaving it overnight, curd is ready.

How does curd benefit digestion?

Probiotics in curd activate the good micro-organisms in the body and reduce or inactivate the harmful bacteria and facilitate the digestive process.

At what time is it best to eat?

Morning time: It is considered very good to eat curd in the morning. It strengthens the digestive system and helps to keep the body active and energetic throughout the day.

Afternoon time: Eating curd in lunch is also beneficial. It improves the digestive process and helps digest food. Eating curd in the afternoon in summer cools the body and provides relief from the heat of the sun.

Evening time: It is good to eat curd in the evening too but it is best to have it with a light meal. For example, you can mix it with fruits or eat fruits first and then yogurt. It should be made like a smoothie or juice.

Something to note

Yogurt should not be eaten on an empty stomach. It can cause acidity in the stomach. It should always be taken with or after food.

Sweet curd: If you eat curd mixed with sugar, you should eat it in limited quantities. Too much sweet yogurt can cause weight gain. Yogurt should not be eaten immediately after taking it out of the refrigerator. It should be kept at room temperature for some time.

Why not eat at night?

Ayurvedic doctor Dr. According to Prakash Gyawali, eating curd in the evening increases phlegm in the body. It causes the risk of colds, sore throats, and colds. Therefore, according to the principles of Ayurveda, it is said not to eat curd at night because the body is more likely to get cold.

Is curd fresh or stale?

Even if it is kept for a long time, it does not rot, melt or become stale like other foods. Gyawali says. "But Ekrate Dahi is considered fresh," he says, "as the night progresses, its quality also decreases." But it cannot be called stale.

Use of curd

Traditionally, curd is used as a dessert ie dessert and sagun. Curd helps in enhancing beauty. Therefore, in addition to eating curd, it is applied like a pack on the skin of the mouth, hands and feet. It also makes the sun-burnt skin fair and soft. Lactic acid in curd is naturally anti-fungal. Therefore, this tea is also used to remove hair and it also works as a natural conditioner for hair.

What to eat yogurt with?

Dahi is eaten mixed with chiura, roti, puri and rice. There is a Nepali tradition of serving curd in the form of sagun when going somewhere far away from home. Nutritionist Leel Bahadur Nepali says that it is better to eat curd after eating other foods. "But because curd contains fat, it is appropriate for people with body fat problems not to mix it with other fatty foods as much as possible," he says.

Why is the taste different?

Yogurt is made from milk, but its taste is slightly different, because when the milk is frozen, bacteria are produced in it. Nutritionist Nepali says, 'When curd is made from milk, its shape, color and texture all change. That's why the taste is different.

Similarly, yogurt available in the market is of two types, pure and adulterated. The taste of these two types of yogurt is also different. Pure curd is made from whole milk while others may be mixed with sugar, powder, processed milk. Also, yogurt made from packet or powdered milk is not tasty.

Benefits of eating curd

Yogurt contains probiotics ie good bacteria. It helps to keep the stomach clean by strengthening the digestive system and eating a bowl of curd every day makes the digestive process healthy.

Increases immunity

Probiotics found in curd help to strengthen immunity. This can cause the body to absorb protein. Moreover, curd prevents stomach infections It also keeps it away.

Strengthens bones

Yogurt is the best source of vitamin C and D. It helps to keep bones and teeth strong. Eating curd daily can prevent the disease called osteoporosis.

Weight control

Since curd contains low fat and high protein, its daily consumption helps to avoid obesity.

Keeps skin healthy

Curd helps in keeping the skin shiny and soft in summer. As it contains vitamin E, zinc and phosphorus, it is good for skin color.

Yoghurt eating day

Every year Asar 15 is also celebrated as the day of eating curd. Dahi Chiura is used as a snack in June, which is considered as the month of planting mano. Dahi Chiura is considered the best snack as it is quick sweet, tasty and healthy and does not go stale and does not have to be complicated to cook.

Who should not eat curd?

A person who is allergic to milk or cannot digest lactose and has a cold should not consume any dairy products and even curd. Rheumatoid patients should also not eat it. Because it cools the body.

What not to eat with curd?

Eating cucumber with curd can have side-effects on the body. Similarly, eating curd with greasy food can cause fat in the body, while bananas, fish, and sour fruits mixed with curd can cause harm instead of benefits.

In an article published by writer Narayan Oli, there is a mention about some types of curd popular in Nepal.

1. Ekrate: Yogurt that has been left overnight in the fridge or frozen the previous day is called Ekrate yogurt.

2. Chokra: A lump of curd that does not set well and does not curdle when beaten is called chokra.

3. Juju Dhau: Curd made by adding saffron, sugar etc. to milk after heating for a long time is called Juju Dhau.

4. Lahe Dahi: Well-cured thick curd is called Lahe Dahi.

How is Juju Dhow popular in Kathmandu Valley made?

Juju Dha is made in traditional style. To prepare juju dhow, first of all, chaff is laid in the curd making area as required. The milk brought from the dairy should be boiled in a karahi so that it becomes thick. When boiling milk, at least 40 liters of milk is boiled to 30 liters.

After it boils, it is placed in a clay bowl on the chaff. Milk is kept in the bowl in three stages. In the first stage, only half of the milk is kept. After that, the milk is poured into a bowl from above.

Then at the end, milk is kept to fill it completely. After boiling the milk, the curd is covered with another bowl. It is covered with a thick silk or warm cloth from above. Juju Dha is ready after about four to five hours. But curd that is stored in plastic containers or in the refrigerator is kept for sale after boiling the milk. After that, the milk is filled all at once and placed in a plastic container.

Curd Museum

Curds require bacteria, which were named Lactobacillus bulgaricus. Which was done by a scientist named Stamen Grigorov from Bulgaria. Therefore, in Bulgaria, a curd museum has been built in his name, which is the only curd museum in the world. Which was named Lactobacillus bulgaricus. A type of bacteria is necessary for curdling.

Yogurt is the secret to longevity

Based on Grigorob's research, Eli Mechnikoff, a Russian Nobel Prize-winning biologist, discovered that the daily consumption of yogurt is responsible for the longevity of Bulgarian farmers. Most of the farmers lived there for more than 100 years. After it was known to prolong life, the tradition of eating curd was developed in France, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and the UK.

Bacterial vaccine export

Even today, the Bulgarian government company LB Bulgaricom gives licenses for the trade and business of Bulgarian yogurt in its partner countries Japan and South Korea. Therefore, every year bacterial vaccines are exported from Bulgaria to Korea and Japan.

Where did the trend of curd start, why the taste is different?

Yogurt is rich in protein and calcium as well as probiotics. Probiotics help produce good bacteria in the body. It also works to convert the food in the stomach into probiotics. Which deactivates the bad bacteria in the body.

Nutritionist Sanjay Maharjan says that curd plays an important role in keeping the digestive system correct and healthy. There are both good and bad bacteria in the body. If the bad bacteria are active, the immune system becomes weak and you fall victim to various diseases,' he says, 'but regular consumption of yogurt helps to increase the number of good bacteria and increase the immune system.'

Carbohydrates, proteins and fats, all the three essential elements of the body are found in curd. Yogurt is also a good source of calcium, vitamins and minerals. Nutritionist Maharjan says that vitamin B6, B12, riboflavin, potassium and magnesium are found in curd.

"In this way, all Hisanb useful curd can be eaten three times a day in the morning, afternoon, evening after eating or with food," he says.

He advises people who are allergic to milk and yogurt, people with gastritis, people who cannot eat protein, people who cannot eat fat, to eat only according to the doctor's advice. In Ayurvedic, it is said that if you don't eat curd in the evening, you will feel cold. But there is no harm in eating in moderation," says Maharjan.

Why is the taste different?

Although curd is made from milk, its taste is slightly different, because when milk is frozen, bacteria are produced in it. Nutritionist Maharjan says, 'When curd is made from milk, its shape, color and texture all change. That's why the taste is different. Similarly, yogurt available in the market is of two types, pure and adulterated. The taste of these two types of yogurt is also different. Pure curd is made from whole milk while others may be mixed with sugar, powder, processed milk.

How healthy is yogurt available in the market?

Mohan Krishna Maharjan, information officer of the Food Technology and Quality Control Department, says that most of the yogurt available in the market is edible. "Because most of the yogurt is being consumed, monitoring is being done every few months, so no inedible yogurt has been found in the monitoring," he says.

What to eat yogurt with?

Dahi is eaten mixed with chiura, roti, puri and rice. There is a tradition of serving curd in the form of sagun when going somewhere far away from home. Nutritionist Leel Bahadur Nepali says that it is better to eat curd after eating other foods. "But because curd contains fat, it is appropriate for people with body fat problems not to mix it with other fatty foods as much as possible," he says.

How did curd start?

In some European countries, it is customary to give yogurt as a gift. In Europe's Bulgaria, any meal is considered incomplete without curd. It is believed that the trend of curd started from Bulgaria. It is said that four thousand years ago, nomadic people discovered a way to freeze curd. They used to migrate from one place to another with their entire families. At the same time, it is believed that they developed a method of curdling and that it spread all over the world. At that time, there was no method of storing milk, so they started making curd by storing milk.

Discovery of curd bacteria

A type of bacteria is necessary for curdling. A scientist named Stamen Grigorov from Bulgaria said that bacteria are needed for curdling. Now a Dahi Museum has been built in his name in Bulgaria, which is the only Dahi Museum in the world. Grigorov studied at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. During that time, he took a curd made in his village and researched it. Bacteria were found to be the main cause of curd formation. Which was named Lactobacillus bulgaricus.

The secret to longevity

Based on Grigorob's research, Russian Nobel Prize-winning biologist Eli Mechnikoff discovered the secret of long life of Bulgarian farmers. He discovered through research that Bulgarian farmers lived longer because they ate more yogurt. Most of the people who lived in the Rhodope Mountains in Bulgaria lived more than a hundred years.

After it was known that people who eat yogurt can live longer, the demand for Bulgarian yogurt increased rapidly in France, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and even in the UK. Later, every meal developed as a must-have dish without curd.

Traditional curd making

Until 1949, yogurt was made at home in the traditional way in Bulgaria. But when Bulgarian yogurt started to be in international demand, the government nationalized the dairy industry.

Because the Bulgarian government planned that this would be the right policy to increase relations and increase recognition in other allied countries of the Soviet Union at that time. They went to different places in Bulgaria and started collecting samples of home-made curd. All of them were used to make a lot of curd by giving it a new experience. In this way, a different type of Bulgarian yogurt started to be available in the market. The government also started exporting this brand of curd.

The art of curd making

Even today, the Bulgarian government company LB Bulgaricom has given licenses to trade and deal with Bulgarian yogurt in its partner countries Japan and South Korea. So every year Bulgari From this, bacterial vaccine is exported to Korea and Japan.

There are many types of yogurt in Bulgaria. Even if two people of the same family make curd, its taste is different. Yogurt making is an art form for the people there and this skill is being passed down from one generation to the next.

What is mode of production. Compare and contrast economic features of feudal and capitalist mode of production.

 What is mode of production. Compare and contrast economic features of feudal and capitalist mode of production.

**Mode of Production:**

The mode of production refers to the way in which a society organizes and carries out economic activities, including how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. It involves the relationships between the means of production (such as land, labor, and capital) and the social relations of production (such as the organization of labor and the distribution of resources). Marx identified different historical modes of production, each characterized by distinct economic structures and class relations.

**Feudal Mode of Production:**

1. **Economic Structure:**

   - Land is the primary means of production in feudalism. The feudal lord owns the land and grants portions to vassals (nobles) in exchange for loyalty and services.

   - Agricultural production is central, and the majority of the population works as peasants on the lord's land.

2. **Class Relations:**

   - Feudal society is characterized by a hierarchical structure. The king or monarch is at the top, followed by nobles and vassals, with peasants forming the majority.

   - Serfs, tied to the land, provide labor in exchange for protection from the lord.

3. **Surplus Extraction:**

   - Surplus extraction occurs primarily through direct control of land. Lords extract surplus through a portion of the agricultural produce produced by peasants.

4. **Economic Dynamics:**

   - The feudal system is static, with limited social mobility. Social status and economic roles are largely determined by birth.

**Capitalist Mode of Production:**

1. **Economic Structure:**

   - Capitalism is characterized by private ownership of the means of production, such as land and factories.

   - Wage labor becomes a central feature, with workers selling their labor power to capitalists (owners) in exchange for wages.

2. **Class Relations:**

   - Capitalist society is marked by a class division between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class).

   - The bourgeoisie owns the means of production, while the proletariat sells their labor to survive.

3. **Surplus Extraction:**

   - Surplus extraction occurs through the production process. Capitalists accumulate surplus value by paying workers less than the value produced by their labor.

4. **Economic Dynamics:**

   - Capitalism is characterized by dynamic economic growth, technological advancements, and constant innovation.

   - Social mobility is theoretically possible, as individuals can accumulate wealth and change their class position.

**Comparison:**

1. **Ownership of Means of Production:**

   - Feudalism: Means of production, especially land, are owned by the feudal lords.

   - Capitalism: Means of production, including land and factories, are privately owned by individuals or corporations.

2. **Labor Relations:**

   - Feudalism: Serfs provide labor in exchange for protection, and there is limited mobility.

   - Capitalism: Workers sell their labor power for wages, and social mobility is theoretically possible.

3. **Role of Surplus Extraction:**

   - Feudalism: Surplus extraction is mainly through control of land and agricultural produce.

   - Capitalism: Surplus extraction occurs within the production process through wage labor.

4. **Social Mobility:**

   - Feudalism: Social mobility is restricted, and social roles are often determined by birth.

   - Capitalism: Social mobility is theoretically possible, allowing for the accumulation of wealth and change in class position.

5. **Economic Dynamics:**

   - Feudalism: Economic activity is relatively static, with limited technological progress.

   - Capitalism: Dynamic economic growth, technological innovation, and constant change characterize capitalist economies.

In summary, the feudal and capitalist modes of production represent distinct economic structures with different ownership relations, labor dynamics, and mechanisms of surplus extraction. The transition from feudalism to capitalism marked a significant shift in societal organization and economic relations.

Class and class struggle.

**Class:**

In the context of Marxist theory, a class is a social group characterized by its relationship to the means of production. The two primary classes in capitalist societies, as identified by Karl Marx, are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

- **Bourgeoisie:** The capitalist class, or owners of the means of production (factories, land, resources). They derive profit from the labor of the proletariat.

- **Proletariat:** The working class, those who sell their labor power to the bourgeoisie. They do not own the means of production and are dependent on wages for their livelihood.

**Class Struggle:**

Class struggle refers to the ongoing conflict and tension between social classes, particularly between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx argued that this struggle is intrinsic to capitalist societies and is rooted in the fundamental economic relations of production.

- **Nature of Class Struggle:**

  - **Economic Exploitation:** The primary source of class struggle is the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie. The capitalist system relies on extracting surplus value from the labor of workers.

  - **Conflicts of Interest:** The interests of the bourgeoisie and proletariat are inherently conflicting. While the bourgeoisie seeks to maximize profits, the proletariat aims to improve working conditions, wages, and gain control over their labor.

- **Forms of Class Struggle:**

  - **Economic Strikes:** Workers may engage in strikes to demand better wages, improved working conditions, or protest against unfair labor practices.

  - **Political Movements:** Class struggle can manifest in political movements advocating for workers' rights, social equality, and sometimes revolutionary change.

  - **Unionization:** Formation of labor unions is a way for the proletariat to collectively negotiate with the bourgeoisie for better terms of employment.

- **Historical Materialism:**

  - Marx's historical materialism asserts that the dynamics of class struggle drive historical change. Transitions from one mode of production to another (e.g., feudalism to capitalism) are propelled by class conflicts.

- **Role of Class Consciousness:**

  - Class consciousness refers to the awareness among the proletariat of their common interests and collective identity. Marx argued that the development of class consciousness is crucial for effective class struggle.

**Critiques and Developments:**

- Some critics argue that the modern working class may not align precisely with Marx's industrial proletariat, leading to challenges in applying traditional Marxist class analysis.

- Contemporary Marxist scholars explore intersections of class with other social categories, such as race and gender, acknowledging the complexities of identity and inequality.

In summary, class and class struggle are foundational concepts in Marxist theory, providing a lens to understand the dynamics of power, exploitation, and societal change within capitalist systems.

Historical marerialism.

**Historical Materialism:**

Historical materialism is a key concept in Marxist theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It is a methodological approach to understanding societal development and change, emphasizing the role of material conditions in shaping historical processes. The central tenets of historical materialism include:

1. **Primacy of Material Conditions:**

   - Historical materialism posits that the material or economic structure of a society—specifically, the mode of production—forms the foundation upon which all other social, political, and cultural structures are built.

2. **Modes of Production:**

   - Societies are characterized by distinct modes of production, each with its specific relations of production and means of production. Marx identified historical epochs, such as feudalism, capitalism, and socialism, as different modes of production.

3. **Dialectical Change:**

   - Historical materialism employs a dialectical approach, drawing inspiration from Hegelian dialectics. It sees historical development as a process involving contradictions, conflicts, and transformations. Changes in material conditions lead to social conflicts and, eventually, new social structures.

4. **Class Struggle:**

   - Class struggle is a central dynamic in historical materialism. Changes in the mode of production often arise from conflicts between social classes. For example, the transition from feudalism to capitalism is characterized by the struggle between feudal lords and emerging capitalist classes.

5. **Base and Superstructure:**

   - The economic base, encompassing the relations and means of production, influences the superstructure, which includes cultural, legal, political, and ideological institutions. Changes in the base drive changes in the superstructure.

6. **Revolutionary Change:**

   - Historical materialism suggests that significant societal transformations often require revolutionary change, particularly changes in the mode of production. For Marx, the transition from capitalism to socialism would involve a proletarian revolution.

7. **Human Agency and Consciousness:**

   - While material conditions shape societal structures, historical materialism recognizes the role of human agency. People act within the constraints of their material conditions but can also influence and transform those conditions. Class consciousness, or awareness of one's social class and interests, is crucial for social change.

**Application to History:**

1. **Feudalism to Capitalism:**

   - Marx applied historical materialism to explain the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Changes in agricultural technology, property relations, and the rise of merchant capitalism played pivotal roles in this historical process.

2. **Capitalism to Socialism:**

   - Marx envisioned the proletarian revolution as the next stage in historical development, leading to the establishment of socialism. The transition involves the collective ownership of the means of production and the abolition of class distinctions.

3. **Global Application:**

   - Historical materialism has been used to analyze the development of various societies worldwide, accounting for differences in historical trajectories based on economic structures.

**Critiques and Developments:**

1. **Non-economic Factors:**

   - Critics argue that historical materialism may oversimplify complex historical processes by reducing them solely to economic factors, neglecting the influence of culture, ideas, and non-material forces.

2. **Intersectionality:**

   - Contemporary scholars have expanded historical materialism to consider intersections with race, gender, and other social categories, recognizing that class is just one dimension of social hierarchy.

3. **Adaptability:**

   - Some argue that historical materialism is adaptable and can be applied to understand various forms of societal development beyond the classic capitalist framework.

Historical materialism remains a foundational concept in Marxist thought, providing a framework for analyzing the historical development of societies and the interconnectedness of economic, social, and political structures.

Marxist notion of consciousness.

The Marxist notion of consciousness is a critical aspect of Karl Marx's philosophical and sociological framework. In Marxist theory, consciousness refers to the awareness, beliefs, and ideas that individuals hold about themselves, society, and their position within the social structure. Key components of the Marxist notion of consciousness include:

1. **Base and Superstructure:**

   - Marx proposed the concept of the base and superstructure to explain the relationship between the economic structure of society (base) and the cultural, political, and ideological elements (superstructure). Consciousness is seen as part of the superstructure and is influenced by the underlying economic conditions.

2. **False Consciousness:**

   - Marx introduced the concept of false consciousness to describe a situation where individuals hold beliefs and ideas that are contrary to their own class interests. This occurs when the dominant ideas in society, often shaped by the ruling class, mislead individuals into accepting and supporting the existing social order.

3. **Class Consciousness:**

   - Class consciousness is a crucial concept in Marxist theory. It refers to the awareness that individuals have of their membership in a particular social class and their understanding of the shared interests and goals of that class. For the proletariat, developing class consciousness is seen as a precursor to revolutionary action.

4. **Ideological State Apparatuses:**

   - Louis Althusser, influenced by Marxist thought, introduced the concept of Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs). These are institutions like schools, media, and religious organizations that disseminate ideological messages reinforcing the existing social order. They play a role in shaping and maintaining the consciousness of individuals.

5. **Role in Social Change:**

   - Marx believed that changes in the economic base of society would eventually lead to changes in consciousness. As the material conditions of production change, individuals' awareness and understanding of their place in society are expected to evolve, potentially leading to shifts in political and social structures.

6. **Revolutionary Consciousness:**

   - Marx envisioned a process where the proletariat, through developing class consciousness, would achieve revolutionary consciousness. This involves an understanding of the need to overthrow the existing capitalist system and replace it with a socialist or communist society.

7. **Materialism and Consciousness:**

   - Central to Marxist philosophy is historical materialism, emphasizing the material conditions of society as the driving force behind historical development. Consciousness, according to Marx, is rooted in these material conditions, and changes in the mode of production can influence ideological shifts.

8. **Critique of Religion:**

   - Marx famously described religion as the "opium of the people," suggesting that religious beliefs often serve to mask the harsh realities of class-based exploitation. He argued that changes in economic conditions would lead to a transformation in religious and ideological consciousness.

In summary, the Marxist notion of consciousness is intricately linked to the social and economic structures of a given society. It encompasses ideas of false consciousness, class consciousness, and the potential for revolutionary transformation based on shifts in material conditions and individuals' awareness of their social roles.