Outlining a research plan implicating elements of the perspective

 Outlining a research plan implicating elements of the perspective

VI.Action Plan: Outlining a research plan implicating elements of the perspective

This unit is utilized to promote group work intended to develop tentative ideas which link up the

world-system perspective and its variants with group research agendas. It is expected that the

‘linkaging’ carried out in the preceding unit will provide valuable inputs for the preparation of

group research agendas.

### VI. Action Plan: Outlining a Research Plan Using the World-System Perspective

This unit aims to guide students in formulating a **research plan** that incorporates the key elements of the **world-system perspective** and its variants. Building on the theoretical linkages discussed in the previous unit, the objective is to develop group research agendas that explore **global-local dynamics**, applying world-system theory to specific **empirical cases** relevant to Nepal or other regions of interest.

#### 1. **Defining the Research Objective**

The first step in developing a research plan is to clearly define the **research objective**. The group should collectively decide on a specific **sociological issue** or **phenomenon** that they want to explore using the **world-system perspective** as a theoretical framework. This issue could relate to:

- **Economic dependency** and the role of **remittances** in shaping local economies.

- The impact of **globalization** on **labor migration** and **employment patterns** in Nepal.

- The influence of **global trade** on **agrarian structures** and **class dynamics** in rural Nepal.

- Analyzing **Nepal's peripheral status** and its political and economic relationship with **core nations**.

- Understanding the role of **international institutions** (e.g., World Bank, IMF) in shaping **national policies**.

Once the group has selected an issue, they can begin crafting a research **question** or **hypothesis** that connects the world-system perspective to the local context. For example, one might ask, *"How does Nepal's position in the periphery of the world-system affect its reliance on foreign remittances for economic stability?"* or *"What role do international trade agreements play in reinforcing class inequalities in rural agricultural communities?"*

#### 2. **Reviewing Literature**

The next step involves conducting a **literature review**. Drawing from both **world-system theory** and **local texts** (such as those discussed in the **Colloquium on Nepal**), students should gather academic resources, articles, books, and case studies that provide insights into their research question.

For example:

- **Wallerstein’s core-periphery model** and its application in peripheral economies like Nepal.

- **Dependency theory** and critiques from scholars such as **Andre Gunder Frank**, **Chaitanya Mishra**, or **Theda Skocpol**.

- Empirical studies on **labor migration**, **agrarian economies**, or **global commodity chains** in peripheral nations.

This literature will serve as the foundation for the theoretical framework and inform the group’s understanding of both **global structural forces** and **local specificities**.

#### 3. **Developing Research Methodology**

The next stage involves outlining a **research methodology**. The group should decide which **methods** will be most appropriate for collecting and analyzing data. Possible methods include:

- **Qualitative Methods**:

  - **Interviews** with migrant workers, agricultural laborers, or local businesses to understand how global economic forces impact their livelihoods.

  - **Focus groups** with community members affected by foreign aid, remittances, or international trade policies.

  - **Ethnographic fieldwork** to observe the dynamics of rural or urban communities and their integration into global markets.

- **Quantitative Methods**:

  - **Surveys** to gather statistical data on remittance flows, income inequality, or employment patterns among migrant laborers.

  - **Data analysis** of economic indicators such as GDP, trade deficits, or remittance contributions to the national economy, which can highlight Nepal’s dependent position in the world economy.

  

- **Case Studies**:

  - Focus on specific regions (e.g., rural villages affected by cardamom cultivation or migrant-heavy districts) to explore local-global linkages in detail.

  - **Comparative analysis** of Nepal with other peripheral nations, drawing parallels and differences in how global capitalism shapes development outcomes.

#### 4. **Linking Theory and Data**

In this stage, students should focus on **linking the theoretical framework**—the world-system perspective—with the **empirical data** they plan to collect. The key here is to use **Wallerstein’s concepts** of core, periphery, and semi-periphery, as well as the **criticisms** and **variants** of the theory, to interpret the data and draw meaningful conclusions.

For example:

- If the group is studying labor migration, they might analyze how the **core countries** (Gulf states, Malaysia) extract cheap labor from **peripheral countries** like Nepal, and how this dynamic impacts local economic stability and social structures.

- If the focus is on agriculture, the group can explore how **global commodity chains** (e.g., in the cardamom industry) integrate local farmers into global markets while maintaining unequal terms of trade, as per the **dependency theory** framework.

By continuously referencing **world-system theory** and its variants throughout the data collection and analysis process, the group will ensure that their research is grounded in the theoretical concepts they have learned.

#### 5. **Organizing Group Work**

Each group should assign specific **tasks** and **roles** to members to ensure efficient collaboration. Possible roles include:

- **Research Coordinator**: Oversees the progress of the research, ensuring deadlines are met and the methodology is followed.

- **Literature Review Lead**: Gathers and organizes relevant theoretical and empirical literature.

- **Fieldwork/Survey Lead**: Manages data collection, including designing surveys or organizing interviews.

- **Data Analyst**: Analyzes quantitative or qualitative data collected during the research process.

- **Writer/Editor**: Drafts the research paper, ensuring it integrates theoretical and empirical components effectively.

Regular group meetings should be held to discuss progress, resolve issues, and ensure that everyone is aligned with the project goals.

#### 6. **Timeline and Milestones**

The group should establish a **timeline** with clear **milestones** for each phase of the research process. An example timeline might look like this:

- **Week 1-2**: Finalize research topic and develop research questions.

- **Week 3-4**: Conduct literature review and refine theoretical framework.

- **Week 5-6**: Design research methodology and create data collection tools (surveys, interview guides, etc.).

- **Week 7-8**: Collect data through interviews, surveys, or fieldwork.

- **Week 9-10**: Analyze data and link findings to world-system theory.

- **Week 11-12**: Draft the research paper and review findings as a group.

- **Week 13-14**: Finalize and submit the research paper.

#### 7. **Final Output and Presentation**

The final output of the group’s research will be a **research paper** that incorporates both the **theoretical insights** from the world-system perspective and **empirical data** collected through fieldwork or secondary sources. This paper should:

- Clearly articulate the **research question** and theoretical framework.

- Present a thorough analysis of the **data**, demonstrating how the world-system theory and its critiques explain local realities.

- Discuss the **implications** of the findings for both **global inequality** and **local development** in Nepal (or the chosen region).

  

Additionally, the group may be required to **present their findings** to the class, fostering further discussion and encouraging peer feedback. The research paper and presentation should reflect the group’s ability to **think critically** and **apply theoretical knowledge** to real-world issues.

#### 8. **Conclusion**

The development of a **group research agenda** that applies the world-system perspective to specific empirical issues promotes **collaborative learning** and the **practical application of theory**. By engaging in this process, students not only deepen their understanding of **global-local dynamics** but also hone their **research skills**, preparing them for future academic or professional work in **sociology**, **development studies**, or related fields. This **action plan** ensures that the world-system perspective becomes not just a theoretical framework but a tool for understanding and addressing **real-world problems**, especially in contexts like Nepal.

Here are **10 comprehensive questions** that cover the key topics from your course, designed to prepare you for your exams:

### 1. **Historical Context of the World-System Perspective**

   - **Question**: Discuss the evolution of the capitalist world-system according to Immanuel Wallerstein. How did the rise of capitalist agriculture and the European world-economy in the sixteenth century shape global social change?

     - *Relevant Readings*: Immanuel Wallerstein, “On the Study of Social Change” (The Modern World-System); William I. Robinson, “Globalization and the Sociology of Immanuel Wallerstein: A Critical Appraisal.”

### 2. **Capitalism and the World-System**

   - **Question**: Explain Wallerstein’s concept of the **capitalist world economy**. How does the production of surplus value contribute to global economic polarization between the core and the periphery?

     - *Relevant Readings*: Wallerstein, Chapter 2 of *World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction*.

### 3. **The Role of Nation-States in the World-System**

   - **Question**: Analyze the rise of the modern nation-state system. How did sovereign nation-states, colonies, and the interstate system develop within the framework of the capitalist world-system?

     - *Relevant Readings*: Wallerstein, Chapter 3 of *World-Systems Analysis*.

### 4. **Crisis of the Modern World-System**

   - **Question**: What are the key factors contributing to the crisis of the modern world-system, as described by Wallerstein? How do bifurcation, chaos, and choices shape the future of global capitalism?

     - *Relevant Readings*: Wallerstein, Chapter 5 of *World-Systems Analysis*; Frank Elwell, “Wallerstein’s Crisis of Capitalism”; Christopher Chase-Dunn, “Five Linked Crises in the Contemporary World System.”

### 5. **Critiques of the World-System Perspective**

   - **Question**: Critically evaluate Theda Skocpol’s critique of Wallerstein’s world capitalist system. What are the theoretical and historical limitations of world-systems analysis?

     - *Relevant Readings*: Theda Skocpol, “Wallerstein’s World Capitalist System: A Theoretical and Historical Critique.”

### 6. **Debates on the Origins of Capitalism**

   - **Question**: Examine the debates surrounding the time-scale and geographical origins of the capitalist world-system. How do the works of scholars like Andre Gunder Frank and Barry Gills challenge Wallerstein’s view on capitalism’s European origins?

     - *Relevant Readings*: Andre Gunder Frank, “Immanuel and Me Without Hyphen”; Barry Gills, “The Continuity Thesis on World Development.”

### 7. **World-Systems and Dependency Theories**

   - **Question**: Compare and contrast world-systems theory with dependency theory. What are the key critiques and new directions proposed by scholars like James Petras in understanding global inequalities?

     - *Relevant Readings*: James Petras, “Dependency and World-System Theory: A Critique and New Directions.”

### 8. **Development and Underdevelopment in Nepal**

   - **Question**: Using a world-system perspective, analyze the issues of development and underdevelopment in Nepal. How do global economic forces impact Nepal’s peripheral status in the world economy?

     - *Relevant Readings*: Chaitanya Mishra, “Development and Underdevelopment in Nepal”; Piers Blaikie, John Cameron, and David Seddon, *Nepal in Crisis*.

### 9. **Labor Migration and Global Capitalism in Nepal**

   - **Question**: Discuss the relationship between **labor migration** and global capitalism, using Nepal as a case study. How do policies and institutional mechanisms governing labor migration reflect Nepal’s position within the capitalist world-system?

     - *Relevant Readings*: Bandita Sijapati and Amrita Limbu, *Governing Labor Migration in Nepal*.

### 10. **Action Plan for Research Using the World-System Perspective**

   - **Question**: Outline a research plan that incorporates the world-system perspective to study a global-local issue relevant to Nepal. What theoretical and empirical methods would you employ to investigate this issue?

     - *Relevant Topics*: Research methodology based on Wallerstein’s world-system theory, group work agenda from the Action Plan unit.

These questions are designed to encourage **critical thinking**, **theoretical analysis**, and the application of **world-systems theory** to specific contexts, including **Nepal**. You can use them to focus your exam preparation and deepen your understanding of the material.

Wallerstein’s world capitalist system: A theoretical and historical critique

Wallerstein’s world capitalist system: A theoretical and historical critique

III.Variants/Critiques 

A. Theda Skocpol. ‘Wallerstein’s world capitalist system: A theoretical and historical

critique’. American Journal of Sociology. Vol 82, No 5 (March 1977). Pp. 1075-89

B. ‘Debates’ on the scale and time-depth of capitalist world system

• Andre Gunder Frank. ‘Immanuel and me with-out hyphen.’ Journal of World Systems

Research. Vol. 6, No 2 (Summer/Fall 2000). Pp. 216-231.

• Barry Gills. ‘The continuity thesis on world development.’ In Sing C Chew and

Robert A. Denemark (eds.), The Development of Underdevelopment. Pp. 226-45

• Christopher Chase-Dunn. ‘World-systems: Similarities and differences.’ In Sing C

Chew and Robert A Denemark (eds.). The Development of Underdevelopment. Pp.

246-58

• Optional reading. Andre Gunder Frank. The Five Thousand Year World System.

Humboldt Journal of Social Relations. Vol. 18, No 2. Pp. 1-41

C. World-systems and dependency theories

• James Petras. ‘Dependency and world-system theory: A critiques and new directions.’

Latin American Perspectives. Vol 8, No 3⁄4. (Late Summer/Autumn). Pp. 148-155

The **variants and critiques** of the World-System Perspective reveal the richness of the theoretical debates surrounding Immanuel Wallerstein’s framework. These critiques offer alternative perspectives, point out limitations in Wallerstein’s theory, and expand on or challenge key assumptions about the nature and historical scope of the capitalist world-system. Below is a detailed examination of these critiques and alternative formulations:

### A. **Theda Skocpol: "Wallerstein’s World Capitalist System: A Theoretical and Historical Critique"**

- *American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 82, No. 5 (March 1977), Pp. 1075-89*

Theda Skocpol provides one of the most comprehensive early critiques of Wallerstein’s world-system theory, arguing that it overemphasizes the role of the global economy while underplaying the **autonomy of state actors** and **political institutions**. She is a key representative of **state-centered approaches** to understanding historical change, contrasting with Wallerstein’s **economic determinism**.

#### Key Critiques:

1. **State Autonomy**: Skocpol argues that Wallerstein’s theory treats states as mere agents of the world-system, subordinated to economic processes. She contends that states have greater autonomy and can shape their own policies in ways that challenge or circumvent the pressures of the world economy. For example, she points to **revolutions** and **social movements** that arise from domestic conditions, which Wallerstein’s model fails to fully account for.

  

2. **Historical Specificity**: Skocpol critiques Wallerstein for his reliance on **broad historical generalizations**. She argues that world-system analysis tends to flatten out differences between historical periods, reducing the complexity of social, political, and cultural factors to a simple core-periphery relationship. According to Skocpol, Wallerstein’s model is insufficiently sensitive to the **unique historical trajectories** of different states and societies.

3. **Underestimation of Political Institutions**: Wallerstein’s theory prioritizes economic factors (e.g., trade, production, and capital accumulation) while underestimating the **role of political institutions** and **state power** in shaping historical outcomes. Skocpol suggests that institutions like the military and bureaucracy have their own logic and can shape social change independently of economic factors.

### B. **Debates on the Scale and Time-Depth of the Capitalist World-System**

1. **Andre Gunder Frank: "Immanuel and Me Without Hyphen"**

   - *Journal of World Systems Research, Vol. 6, No. 2 (Summer/Fall 2000), Pp. 216-231*

   Andre Gunder Frank, a key figure in **dependency theory** and later a proponent of the **"5,000-year world system"** concept, challenges Wallerstein’s insistence that capitalism emerged in the 16th century. He argues that **global economic systems** existed long before the modern world-system.

   #### Key Points:

   - **Continuity of World Systems**: Frank contends that the world-system should not be seen as a novel development of the 16th century but rather as the continuation of a much older pattern of global economic interaction dating back millennia. He emphasizes **trade networks** in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, which had significant global influence long before European dominance.

   - **De-centering Europe**: Frank critiques Wallerstein’s Eurocentrism, suggesting that Europe’s rise to prominence was more the result of **Asian decline** than European innovation. According to Frank, regions like China, India, and the Middle East had highly developed economies that played a crucial role in the global system long before European expansion.

2. **Barry Gills: "The Continuity Thesis on World Development"**

   - *In Chew and Denemark (eds.), The Development of Underdevelopment, Pp. 226-245*

   Barry Gills, like Frank, argues for a **continuity thesis**, suggesting that global economic systems have existed for far longer than Wallerstein acknowledges. Gills highlights the **long history of interconnected trade systems**, particularly in Asia, as evidence that world systems have been present for thousands of years.

   #### Key Points:

   - **Non-European Centric Histories**: Gills emphasizes the importance of looking at **non-European** centers of power, such as China, India, and the Middle East, as primary drivers of early world systems. He suggests that Europe’s rise was a relatively **late development** in the history of global economies.

3. **Christopher Chase-Dunn: "World-Systems: Similarities and Differences"**

   - *In Chew and Denemark (eds.), The Development of Underdevelopment, Pp. 246-258*

   Chase-Dunn critiques both Wallerstein and Frank by exploring **similarities and differences** between different world-systems across time. He argues for a more nuanced understanding of world-systems, recognizing both **continuities and changes** over long periods.

   #### Key Points:

   - **Structural Continuity and Transformation**: Chase-Dunn recognizes the existence of earlier world-systems but also highlights that **capitalism** introduced novel features, such as the unique way it organizes labor and capital globally. He maintains that Wallerstein’s focus on the **16th century** is important because capitalism represents a **qualitatively different world-system**.

   - **Hybrid Models**: Chase-Dunn suggests that scholars should look for **hybrid models** that combine insights from both Wallerstein and Frank. While earlier global systems did exist, capitalism has distinct dynamics that are worth emphasizing, such as **cyclical crises**, **global polarization**, and the persistence of core-periphery relations.

4. **Andre Gunder Frank: "The Five Thousand Year World System"** (Optional)

   - *Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, Vol. 18, No. 2, Pp. 1-41*

   Frank elaborates on his thesis that world systems have existed for over 5,000 years, emphasizing the central role of **Asia** in global economic history. This work de-centers Europe entirely and challenges Wallerstein’s view that the **modern capitalist system** is a distinct historical phenomenon.

   #### Key Points:

   - **Long-Term Historical Patterns**: Frank argues that modern capitalism is not a new or distinct system but a **continuation of long-term global economic patterns** that date back thousands of years. He draws attention to the **Asian-centered trade networks** that existed well before Europe’s rise.

   - **Asia as the Core**: Frank suggests that **Asia**, not Europe, was the dominant core of the global economy for much of history, with Europe only becoming significant after 1500.

### C. **World-Systems and Dependency Theories**

1. **James Petras: "Dependency and World-System Theory: A Critique and New Directions"**

   - *Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 8, No. 3/4 (Late Summer/Autumn), Pp. 148-155*

   James Petras compares **dependency theory** with **world-systems theory** and offers a critique of both, while also suggesting new directions for understanding global inequality. Dependency theory, developed by thinkers like Andre Gunder Frank and Fernando Henrique Cardoso, focuses on the **unequal relationship** between developed and developing countries, where the latter are structurally dependent on the former.

   #### Key Points:

   - **Core-Periphery Model**: Like world-systems theory, dependency theory uses the **core-periphery** framework to understand global inequality. However, Petras criticizes both theories for being too **deterministic** and for underestimating the capacity of **local agency** and **resistance** in the periphery. He argues that peripheral nations are not entirely powerless in the face of global capitalism.

   - **State and Class Relations**: Petras also critiques Wallerstein for downplaying the role of **domestic class relations** within peripheral countries. He argues that dependency theory, by focusing more on internal dynamics, offers a better explanation for why some nations succeed in breaking free from dependency, while others remain trapped.

   - **New Directions**: Petras suggests that future research should focus on **local forms of resistance**, state-led development projects, and the **emergence of new powers** from the global South (e.g., China, India) that challenge the traditional core-periphery relationship.

### Conclusion

The variants and critiques of Wallerstein’s world-systems theory demonstrate the **diverse range of scholarly perspectives** on global capitalism and its historical development. Skocpol’s critique highlights the need to account for **state autonomy** and political institutions, while Frank and Gills emphasize the **long-term continuity** of global economic systems and challenge the **Eurocentrism** in Wallerstein’s work. Chase-Dunn offers a more nuanced view, balancing both continuity and change in the history of world-systems, and Petras bridges the gap between **dependency theory** and world-systems analysis by calling for greater attention to **local agency** and **internal dynamics**.

Together, these critiques deepen our understanding of global inequality, the role of states, and the historical development of capitalism, encouraging students to think critically about the **world-system** and its future trajectory.

The modern world-system as a capitalist world economy

 The modern world-system as a capitalist world economy

II. Key themes 

A. ‘The modern world-system as a capitalist world economy: Production, surplus value and

polarization’

• IW: Chapter 2 of World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction (WSA). Pp. 22-41

B. ‘The rise of the states-system: Sovereign nation-states, colonies and the interstate system’

• IW: Chapter 3 of WSA: Pp. 42-59

C. ‘The modern world-system in crisis: Bifurcation, chaos and choices’

• IW: Chapter 5 of WSA: Pp. 77-90

• Frank Elwell: ‘Wallerstein’s crisis of capitalism.’ P. 5

• Christopher Chase-Dunn. ‘Five linked crises in the contemporary world system.’

Journal of World-Systems Research. Vol 19, No. 2, 175-80

The **key themes** from these readings focus on understanding the structure of the modern capitalist world-system, the role of nation-states and colonies in its development, and the current crises and challenges facing the system. Below is a detailed exploration of each of these themes:

### A. **The Modern World-System as a Capitalist World Economy: Production, Surplus Value, and Polarization**

- *Immanuel Wallerstein: Chapter 2 of World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction (Pp. 22-41)*

This chapter provides a detailed overview of the capitalist world-economy, focusing on how **production** and the extraction of **surplus value** are organized across the world-system. Wallerstein builds on **Marxist economics** to explain how capitalism operates globally, but he expands the analysis to incorporate the **international division of labor** between core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral regions.

#### Key Points:

- **Capitalist production** in the world-system is organized to maximize the extraction of **surplus value**—the value produced by labor beyond what is needed to sustain workers. This surplus is primarily accumulated in the core, where advanced industries and high-profit enterprises are concentrated.

  

- **Polarization** is a central concept, referring to the increasing gap between the wealthy core nations and the impoverished periphery. As capitalism expands, this inequality becomes more entrenched, with core regions benefiting from the exploitation of labor and resources in the periphery.

- **Unequal exchange** is a mechanism through which core nations extract surplus value from the periphery. Peripheral regions are often forced to export raw materials and labor-intensive goods at low prices while importing high-value products from the core, perpetuating their dependency and underdevelopment.

Wallerstein highlights that the **global hierarchy** of nations is not just a reflection of economic productivity but of historical processes that allowed certain regions (mostly Europe) to dominate global trade, finance, and politics.

### B. **The Rise of the States-System: Sovereign Nation-States, Colonies, and the Interstate System**

- *Immanuel Wallerstein: Chapter 3 of World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction (Pp. 42-59)*

This chapter focuses on the **political dimension** of the world-system, especially the rise of **sovereign nation-states** and the development of the **interstate system**. Wallerstein argues that the modern world-system cannot be understood purely as an economic entity—it is also a political one, structured by the interaction of states.

#### Key Points:

- The **sovereign nation-state** emerged alongside the capitalist world-economy in the 16th century. The state became the primary political unit through which capitalism was organized and regulated.

  

- The interstate system, or the network of relationships between sovereign states, played a critical role in maintaining global capitalism. **Colonialism** was one of the key features of this system, where core nations established colonies in peripheral regions to secure resources and labor.

- Wallerstein emphasizes that while nation-states may appear to be independent political entities, they are deeply embedded in the **world-system**. Their sovereignty is often limited by the pressures of the global market and the power dynamics of the interstate system.

- The **balance of power** between states, especially the core nations, ensures that no single state can dominate the system entirely, although certain nations have held hegemonic positions (e.g., the Netherlands in the 17th century, Britain in the 19th century, and the United States in the 20th century).

This chapter also highlights how the **state** serves as an agent of capitalism, facilitating the conditions for capital accumulation, such as protecting private property, enforcing contracts, and regulating labor.

### C. **The Modern World-System in Crisis: Bifurcation, Chaos, and Choices**

- *Immanuel Wallerstein: Chapter 5 of World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction (Pp. 77-90)*

- *Frank Elwell: "Wallerstein’s Crisis of Capitalism"*

- *Christopher Chase-Dunn: "Five Linked Crises in the Contemporary World System"*

This theme addresses the **current crisis** in the capitalist world-system and the potential for its transformation. Wallerstein, Elwell, and Chase-Dunn argue that the world-system is facing multiple crises that are fundamentally destabilizing its structures.

#### Key Points from Wallerstein:

- **Bifurcation and Chaos**: Wallerstein argues that the modern world-system is approaching a point of **bifurcation**—a major transition where the system may either evolve into something new or collapse into chaos. He describes this as a period of systemic crisis, where the internal contradictions of capitalism (such as inequality, environmental degradation, and overaccumulation of capital) can no longer be managed effectively.

- **Choices**: As the system approaches this chaotic state, Wallerstein suggests that we are faced with important **choices** about the future of the world-system. He implies that this period of crisis offers opportunities for fundamental change, potentially leading to the creation of a more just and equitable global order, though he also warns that the system could descend into greater inequality and oppression.

#### Key Points from Elwell:

- **Crisis of Capitalism**: Elwell builds on Wallerstein’s analysis to argue that capitalism is in crisis due to its inability to resolve its inherent contradictions. For example, the drive for profit leads to environmental destruction and social inequality, which undermine the long-term sustainability of the system.

- Elwell points to the increasing polarization between rich and poor countries, environmental degradation, and political instability as evidence that the **world-system** is reaching its limits.

#### Key Points from Chase-Dunn:

- **Five Linked Crises**: Chase-Dunn identifies five interrelated crises facing the world-system today: 

  1. **Economic stagnation**: Global growth has slowed, leading to economic uncertainty and unemployment.

  2. **Ecological crisis**: Environmental degradation, including climate change, threatens the survival of the system.

  3. **Social inequality**: The gap between rich and poor, both within and between nations, continues to widen, leading to social unrest.

  4. **Geopolitical instability**: Rising tensions between major powers, such as the United States and China, pose risks to global peace and stability.

  5. **Legitimacy crisis**: There is a growing distrust of political institutions, both national and international, as people lose faith in the ability of governments and global organizations to solve pressing problems.

Chase-Dunn argues that these crises are interconnected, and together they represent a **systemic challenge** to the existing global order. Like Wallerstein, he suggests that the world is at a crossroads, where the current system may be replaced by something new—either more democratic and equitable or more authoritarian and exploitative.

### Conclusion

The key themes explored in these readings reveal the **multi-dimensional nature** of the modern world-system as theorized by Wallerstein. His analysis provides a comprehensive framework for understanding global capitalism, its historical development, and its current challenges. By focusing on the **economic, political, and systemic crises** facing the world today, these readings also highlight the urgency of addressing the **structural contradictions** of capitalism, which are pushing the world-system toward a critical juncture.

These themes are essential for understanding the **historical trajectory of global capitalism**, the role of nation-states and colonialism, and the future challenges that the world faces as the capitalist system approaches a point of crisis. Understanding these dynamics can provide valuable insights for analyzing contemporary issues, including those specific to regions like Nepal.

Let's understand in detail, what is Viagra, a drug that increases sexual performance?

Let's understand in detail, what is Viagra, a drug that increases sexual performance?

The name of Viagra is very famous. Many people know that this drug of Viagra brand increases sexual performance. But few know that it has its own quantity. Which should be used in case of lack of sexual ability only on the advice of the doctor considering the body condition and age.

In this way, cases of death due to eating randomly and regularly are heard from time to time.

What kind of medicine is this?

Viagra is a brand of Sildenafil Citrate drug. which belongs to the group of prostaglandin inhibitors. It temporarily activates the sexual potential of men.

The American Pfizer company invented this medicine in 1998 and named the brand 'Viagra'. Due to the fact that the old medicine released in the beginning and the response in the market was also positive, this medicine gained popularity. And, from that time until today, its demand is increasing. The medicine is famous by the name of Viagra.

In what situation is it used?

As a medicine to increase sexual desire, this medicine cannot be taken as such. Doctors recommend this medicine only to those who have problems with sexual impotence.

Sexual impotence is the inability of the penis to become hard during sexual intercourse or to be unable to maintain it for a long time. Because of this, sex cannot happen even if you want to. If there is such a problem, this medicine works.

How does this medicine work?

When thinking about or wanting to have sex, the brain produces a chemical called nitric oxide. It activates different bio chemicals in the body. Some of these chemicals are gradually destroyed by prostaglandin and five hormones. So after some time the excitement disappears.

This medicine works to block that breaking process. This drug increases the amount of nitric oxide in the body of a person with sexual impotence. And, makes the arteries loose. As a result, blood flow temporarily increases in the penis. As soon as the blood flows, the penis becomes hard. And, sexual ability increases temporarily.

When and how to use this medicine?

Viagra is available in 25 mg to 200 mg. How many milligrams to give depends on the condition of the affected person.

As far as the use of the medicine is concerned, this medicine should be taken 20-25 minutes before sexual intercourse. If a large meal is consumed, it will take some time to show its effect. The dose of this medicine can last for 4 to 5 hours.

But if one medicine doesn't work, don't take another tablet. Sometimes stress or other reasons can cause sexual arousal.

Side-effects

It may cause some temporary side-effects. In which side-effects can be seen such as headache, skin redness, stomach problems, vision problems, nasal congestion, fever and muscle pain.

Viagra stimulates blood vessels in the muscles. In such a situation, the blood flow to the muscles is accelerated.

If you experience symptoms of chest pain, vision problems, breathing problems, swelling of the eyes and face due to its consumption, you should contact your doctor immediately.

Who should not eat?

- Viagra should not be taken even if you have heart problems and are taking nitrate group drugs. It increases the pressure on the heart. If you have to eat it, you should eat it only on the advice of a doctor.

- If a person experiences chest pain with slight exertion and his breathing rate increases, he should not use Viagra.

- If there is a heart attack or a stroke, the use of Viagra can be dangerous.

- Those who take blood pressure medicine and diabetes medicine should not use it either.

- Even if you have a kidney problem, it should not be used without a doctor's advice.

- HIV patients should not use Viagra even if they are taking Ritonavir.

Don't use it randomly

Today, even young, energetic young men use Viagra without a doctor's advice to indulge in sexual activity for a long time, to increase their virility or to be embarrassed in front of their partner.

Long-term use of this drug affects thinking and confidence. Some users are addicted to it. That's why they use it excessively thinking that it is not possible without sex.

Its side-effects can sometimes be very dangerous. Excessive use of it can make a person blind forever. People don't even know this.

Sometimes its use lasts for a long time, which is not good. If stimulation is continued for longer than necessary, it can become a problem.

Interesting history

In 1989, a team of the American pharmaceutical company Pfizer was working on making a drug to treat angina, that is, heart disease. Angina is a condition in which the arteries that supply blood to the heart become narrowed, causing chest pain and shortness of breath.

In this effort, Pfizer created a new ingredient, Sildenafil, and tested it on some men. Sildenafil failed to relieve heart pain in clinical trials. But the effort was not wasted. Most of the men who participated in the trial felt sexually stimulated by this drug. It has been confirmed that it has improved the sex life of many.

In other words, the medicine that Pfizer made for the proper flow of blood in the heart, that medicine worked for the veins of the penis. Then Pfizer started experimenting to solve the problem of sexual impotence.

The company got the patent for this medicine in 1996. On March 27, 1998, the FDA approved a drug called sildenafil for medical use. The brand name of sildenafil is Viagra.

 

Can anxiety become a mental illness?

 Can anxiety become a mental illness?

Atyas means to panic and rush. The reason for panic varies from person to person. Some people have a habit of rushing. Some people have to do everything quickly from a young age, if they are doing one thing, when will that work be done and then the next one will be done, it is difficult to wait for their turn even when talking, even if they have to wait for a long time somewhere, they become impatient. This is called panic habit.

This anxiety habit is not a disease. If the nature is already anxious, then it can be improved through behavior change and counseling.

If any person panics, something may be bothering him. Let's say, the problem of thinking. A person with a delusional problem feels as if others are thinking bad about you, plotting, etc. In such a case, the person often tries to get away from the person who interrupted him.

Patients with anxiety disorders and mania are often hyperactive. So he tries to do more work in less time. As a result, a person who is doing a job is worried about when that job will be finished. A person with a fear problem is afraid that something bad will happen to me if I can't do it. Even though the person knows that it is only fear, it seems that when he cannot control himself, he becomes more afraid, anxious and agitated.

Similarly, a person with a problem of depression, a person with weak morale, if he is able to do something well or if he is not able to do something, he is tormented by pain and worry that something bad will happen to me and seems to hurry more than necessary.

Another problem seen in our society is 'obsessive compulsive disorder'. Although he knows that some wrong thought is coming to his mind, he cannot control it. When you try to control it, the heart beats, it becomes difficult to breathe, it is fast, and it seems that what is not right and what is not enough.

After doing something, there is a feeling of inferiority that you have done it in vain and if you are not able to do that work, there is a problem of anxiety. Anxiety problems are usually a symptom of all mental illnesses. Anxiety is a disease of fear if there is a problem of panic for no reason. But in any problem, because it is difficult internally, it seems that they are afraid when they are not able to present their problem well.

Even though the mind knows that there is no need to be afraid, if there is a problem of fear and anxiety without any reason, it is an anxiety disorder. Anxiety can be seen in any mental illness. A person with arousal problem has a problem of anxiety due to overstimulation of the mind and body. A person suffering from depression has a very low morale, which makes him panic over the smallest things, whether something went wrong or not.

Even the habit of panic can turn into a disease later

Some people may have a habit of being nervous, but whether they are nervous or not, everyone experiences stress. Just because he has a habit of panicking, it does not necessarily mean that he does everything in a hurry.

For example, there are four members in a family. Three of them do not panic at all and one person has a tendency to panic. If there is some problem in the family, three people solve the problem as easily as possible. It is very difficult for an anxious person to find a solution.

People with anxiety are more likely to develop mental health problems due to stress than others. People with panic disorder are more likely to suffer from fear and anxiety disorders.

Who has more problems with rushing?

In children under 10 years of age, the problem of panic and haste does not appear much. In children above 10 years of age, the problem of panic and rushing may be seen.

Due to the pressure of studies and work, if there is no one to listen to them at home, such children have the problem of rushing, panicking, and acting out.

Compared to the previous generation, today's children seem to be more attracted to mobile phones. They watch Tik Tok and Reel more on mobile, which are very short-lived, even in that short time, many things are included. As a result, the child gets used to seeing a lot of things in a short time. When watching a reel, they scroll in 5 to 10 seconds, which makes it difficult for them to watch even a three-minute video. It is difficult for a person who watches a three-minute reel to watch a 30-minute video.

Because things change faster than before, when one thing is not well understood and immediately attracted to another thing, it seems that children can't focus on something, can't pay attention, can't divide their attention.

Treatment and prevention

Having a habit of panic does not mean that everyone has mental illness. By saying that you have a habit of panic, you cannot change the character and personality of a person today or tomorrow. Another problem may arise when you think that you will change your personality. As long as the anxiety problem has not affected work, relationships and daily life, then there is no need to worry about the disease. But when this habit causes me to get irritable, get angry, affect relationships, have problems with memory and sleep, then I should be aware that I have a mental illness and I should go to the hospital and seek the advice of a doctor.

If it is not possible to make an offering to a doctor, they can do daily physical and mental exercises, meditation. How the body and mind feel when not panicking and how it feels when panicky and how to control it If you think about what can be done, there is less chance that the habit of anxiety will turn into a disease.

Why is it harmful to drink tea that has been boiled for a long time?

 Why is it harmful to drink tea that has been boiled for a long time?

Starting the day with a sip of sweet tea is a common practice in South Asian countries including Nepal and India. Drinking tea is very common in these countries. There are also different ways of making tea according to geography and climate. Every person makes tea according to his taste and enjoys it.

According to an article published in Navbharat Times, every house in India makes a lot of milk tea. The same applies to Nepal. Most people follow this one method of making tea, steeping the tea leaves in water and boiling them for a long time.

Many people think that if tea is boiled for a long time, its taste will be sweet. Some people also boil milk and tea leaves together. But many people do not know that boiling tea for a long time is harmful to health.

According to Indian nutritionist Shikha Aggarwal Sharma, there are many benefits of properly brewing tea. Drinking properly brewed tea helps to increase immunity, reduce weight, and control blood sugar levels. But since tea leaves contain caffeine, boiling them for a long time is harmful, says nutritionist Agarwal.

Risk of cancer

According to experts, tannins are abundant in tea. It is a group of polyphenolic biomolecules, which are found in fruits, vegetables, nuts, wine and tea. Tannin is a molecule that is abundant in tea and coffee. It binds together protein, cellulose, starch and minerals. As a result, the body becomes deficient in iron. Boiling tea for more than four minutes increases the amount of tannin, which inhibits iron absorption. In addition, if the tea is boiled too much, the nutrients in the tea will also decrease. Tea cooked in this way increases acidity in the body. If you drink too much of this tea, it also causes the risk of cancer.

Nutrients are low

Nutrients and minerals are found in tea leaves. It contains flavonoids, catechins, polyphenols, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, zinc, calcium and fluoride. According to experts, boiling tea for a long time reduces the nutrients found in tea leaves and milk. Vitamin B12 and C found in it are also low.

Inhibits iron absorption

According to experts, if the tea is boiled for a long time, the tannin content in it is reduced. This element is found in some fruits, vegetables and nuts. Boiling tea for a long time will hinder the absorption of iron. Which can reduce the amount of blood in the body.

Stomach problems

Boiling tea leaves and milk for a long time destroys the protein found in milk. Because of this, due to problems in digesting milk, stomach ache, acidity problem, flatulence, gas filling may occur. After boiling the tea with milk for a long time, it will smell bitter even after drinking it.

Too much boiling of tea leaves and milk together is harmful

At high temperature, a chemical reaction takes place with milk's lactose protein. If you drink it in excess, it will produce harmful substances in the body. If these two are mixed and boiled for a long time, a substance called acrylamide can be formed in milk. It is high in carbohydrates. Acrylamide can also cause cancer.

So what is the right way to make tea?

According to experts, boiling tea leaves in high-temperature water for two minutes increases the amount of polyphenols found in them. Boiling more than this will make the quality of the tea worse.

There is no benefit to over-boiling, it makes the tea taste bitter. To increase the taste and benefits of tea, it is important to follow the right method of making tea.

The right way to make tea

– Boil a pan of water and again turn off the gas (any means of fire).

- Put a teaspoon of tea leaves in it and cover it for three to four minutes.

- Now add a little milk and sugar according to your taste and enjoy the tea.

Is eating too many eggs a problem in summer?

 Is eating too many eggs a problem in summer?

Eggs are high protein and nutrient rich foods. Eggs are an indispensable diet for gym or physical exercisers. But doctors say that eating too many eggs in summer can be harmful to health.

As egg is a natural heat enhancer, it can also cause digestive problems. Therefore, excessive consumption of eggs in the summer season can also cause heat stroke. Eggs contain protein, vitamins B and D and other important nutrients, so eating one or two eggs in summer is enough.

By eating two eggs with the yolk part, the body gets the necessary nutrition. But since you have a habit of eating a lot of eggs every morning, you must be careful. Eating too many eggs has a negative effect on health.

Increases heat

Since eggs are high in protein, they heat naturally. Therefore, eating eggs in hot weather makes you feel more hot. Excessive consumption of eggs in summer can lead to heat stroke as well as bleeding from the nose.

Digestive problems

Eating more eggs can also affect the digestive process. Because of this, indigestion, stomach upset and gas can be a problem. Some people may have problems such as stomach ache, vomiting.

Dehydration problems

In summer, the body also feels lack of water. Eating eggs can increase the problem of dehydration. After eating eggs, as the body temperature increases, sweat is produced more. Due to this, the problem of dehydration can increase.

May be allergic

Eating too many eggs in the summer can cause allergy problems in some people. Due to which the skin can also cause various itching diseases.

Cholesterol may increase

Egg yolk contains high amount of cholesterol. Patients with already high cholesterol should not eat eggs. It can also increase the risk of heart disease.

What happens in a person's mind before death?

 What happens in a person's mind before death?

Neurologist Dr. Himo Borhin discovered almost exactly what happens in the brain when a person dies.

Himo said, 'We were experimenting on rats, after the surgery something came out of their brains, we were also studying that. Suddenly two mice died. Because of this, we got the opportunity to monitor the process of death in the brain of those mice.

Serotonin is a chemical that controls the mood of living beings. After seeing the amount of serotonin in the brain of that dead rat, Dr. Many questions arose in Himo's mind.

Then Himo began to do more research on the information she already had. She thought that there must be some reason behind the leakage of serotonin.

Dr. Himo Borheen is an Associate Professor in the Department of Molecular and Inquiring Physiology and Neurology at the University of Michigan, USA. While investigating the death of mice. Himo began to study what happens in the brain when people die. She said that the understanding and knowledge about the death that she found during the investigation was different.

DEFINITION OF DEATH

If a pulse is not detected after a prolonged heart attack, it is considered dead in the eyes of the doctor. In this process, emphasis is placed on the heart. It is called a heart attack, not a brain attack.

Himo says, "According to scientists, it seems that there is nothing going on in the brain of a dead person." Because dead people can neither speak nor move their bodies.

The brain needs a lot of oxygen to function. If the brain does not pump blood, oxygen does not reach the brain. "Generally all symptoms indicate that the brain is not working or is in a dormant state," she says.

But Dr. From the research of Himo and his team, completely different information has come.

The brain is moving very fast

In a 2013 study of mice, when their hearts stopped working, there was increased activity in many neurons in their brains.

"The release of serotonin in the brains of the dead rats increased 60 times and the release of the feel-good chemical dopamine also increased 40 to 60 times," says Dimo, "at the same time, the amount of norepinephrine, the chemical that makes living animals more alert, increased up to 100 times."

She says that it would be impossible for an animal to have such a large amount of these chemicals in its brain while alive. In 2015, the team published the results of another study in the brains of dying mice. It is almost impossible for an animal to have such a high concentration of these chemicals in its brain.

In both cases, 100 percent of the animals recorded significant brain activity. At the time of death, the brain was very active,” she says.

gamma wave

In 2023, Himo and his team published another research paper. The research was conducted on four people who were in a coma and were dependent on life support systems for their heartbeats. These patients were given electrodes or plates for electroencephalography. So that their brain activity can be recorded.

Those four were close to death. The doctor and his family members decided that they could not be saved in any way. Therefore, efforts to save their lives should be abandoned.

With the permission of relatives, ventilator support was removed from those four people. During this time, the researchers noticed that the brains of the two patients were very active. It revealed cognitive activity in the brain.

Gamma waves were also recorded in their brains during this period, which is said to be the fastest brain wave. Gamma waves are part of the complex process of information and memory processing in the human brain.

During the monitoring of another patient's brain, very intense activity was observed in the temporal lobe of his brain, i.e. the part of the brain behind both ears.

Himo says, 'The part of the human brain behind the right ear is considered very important for empathy. Those who have survived a heart attack, those who have experienced death up close. They have made themselves better people with that experience and have started to feel more empathy towards others.'

A near death experience

Some people who have returned from the face of death have said that the picture of their life flashed before their eyes or they remembered many important moments of their life at that time.

Many people reported seeing a bright light during their death. Some people have claimed that they felt that they had come out of their body and were watching everything from a distance. Extreme activity of the brain, hyperactivity, is the reason why people standing on the verge of death have such a terrible experience?

Dr. About 20 to 25 percent of heart attack victims report seeing white lights, saying they saw something strange, says Hema. Of course, the image making part of their brain was activated.

After removing the ventilator, the researchers say about the two patients who showed very fast activity in the brain.

This means, they must have experienced seeing something like this. Dr. Himo said the study involved very few people and that more research is needed to understand what happens in the brain when a person dies.

But after more than 10 years of research on this matter, Dr. One thing has become clear to Himo During a heart attack, the brain does not rest, it becomes very active.

Himo says, 'We are still trying to understand this. Not much information is available on this.

Referring to the state of hibernation, she says, "All animals, including mice and humans, have different mechanisms to cope with the lack of oxygen." Until now, it was believed that when the heart stops working, the mind becomes silent and watches everything as a spectator. This means that the heart stops working, the brain shuts down.

But the brain does not give up easily. Himo says. "Just as our mind fights against every difficult situation, it also fights against death. The brain has enough capacity to face the challenge of lack of oxygen. But more research is yet to be done on this,” she says.

There is still much to discover

Dr. What Himo and his team discovered is just a small piece of information. Much remains to be discovered about this.

There are mechanisms in the brain that deal with lack of oxygen, which we do not understand. People whose heart stops working have this unique and different kind of experience. Statistics show that this is due to brain activity," she says.

Now the question arises, why is there so much activity in the dying brain?

Dr. Himo says, 'All of us should change our understanding about this. If you study it and research it, you can get answers to these questions. Because millions of people are believed to be dead before their actual death. Because we do not fully understand the entire process of death.

What happens inside the head?

Every day half a liter of water is produced in the head and the body is irrigated. Doctors have called this water 'holy water'. Because it plays a key role in the functioning of the brain.

What happens inside the head?

Kathmandu. Focus on yourself for a moment, how can a mobile phone in the palm of your hand transmit what is said from one hemisphere of the earth to another geography correctly and immediately? How can the previous laptop complete your digital work in minutes?

How can a heavy or heavy airplane fly in the open sky carrying hundreds of people comfortably? How can effective results on the earth be obtained by mathematically estimating the movement of planets and constellations? How can his family tree be found by keeping a microscopic part of the body in the laboratory?

When we are still and thinking for a moment, our mind is spinning. While all these miracles are the product of that mind.

The miracle of making Einstein a scientist, Socrates a philosopher, Siddhartha Gautama a Buddha belongs to that mind. The same mind, which has solved innumerable questions about the universe. Result - From the evolution of life to the human body, from the origin of the earth to the subsoil, from the celestial bodies to the planets and constellations, people are capable of making dreams come true.

How is that mind that works so great and magical?

Without being able to see this thing inside our own head, our life is the rest. What a surprise!

Looking for the answer to that mystery, we reached Veer Hospital, Prof. Dr. To meet Rajeev Jha. Dr. Jha has performed more than 19,000 head surgeries. We decided to study the structure of the brain through his eyes.

How is that brain that works so big and magical?

Without being able to see this thing inside our own head, our life is the rest. What a surprise!

When we dig our heads

What does it look like with open eyes? Before answering this, let's talk about some amazing and strange facts about head and brain.

Every day half a liter of water is produced in the head and the body is irrigated. Doctors have called this water 'holy water'. Because it plays a key role in the functioning of the brain.

Dr. Rajeev Jha

An adult human body has a head of about five kilograms. On that head is the brain carefully held by a bone cover like a crow. The average weight of the brain is 1.4 kg when it is in a flat state like frozen curd. Such a small brain rules the whole body.

65 percent of brain composition is fat. The rest is protein. It is solid but it is water soluble in between.

Men's brain size is 200 grams larger than that of women. This does not mean that men have more brains than women. Only structurally the size is big.

Numerous nerves are connected to the brain, which are working in different ways. Thinking, imagining, creating, evaluating, reasoning, alerting, fearing, feeling sad, happy, proud, excited, all the emotional activities are done by those different mechanisms of the brain.

Most of the blood consumed by the organs of the body is done by the brain. The brain size of boys and girls is different. Boys are bigger by 200 grams.

A brain wired like an electric wire

The brain is in the shape of a shriveled, sometimes swollen pattern, just like when you crack open a walnut. It is carefully kept covered with a letter like a bone cover. This letter of bone consists of three layers. In this way, nature has kept the brain with utmost protection. The brain has two layers, the upper one is slightly darker and the inner one is completely white.

Although it looks like a lump at a glance, it is basically divided into two parts, right and left. There is another connector connecting these two parts, which is called the corpus callosum. It establishes communication between two separate parts of the brain. It also has various glands. There are thalamus, hypothalamus, pons, medulla, pituitary and pineal gland.

The right-left, front-back parts of the brain are separate and all these have different tasks.

How does the brain think, hear, smell and see?

The front part, which is called the cerebrum. Cerebrum ie frontal lobe is related to human nature, tendency, reaction, evaluation, behavior.

The upper layer of the brain, i.e. the parietal lobe, which makes people feel taste, touch, and temperature. That is why it makes you feel that it is cold or hot, painful, something is broken. It is also related to hearing. It does the work of hearing or understanding any sound. On the right is the temporal lobe, which is related to human memory. It also works for hearing ability.

The occipital lobe, which is in the upper part, has a special relationship with our vision. After we look at any object, it is the task of distinguishing and identifying its shape.

The two parts at the back of the brain are called the cerebellum. Its job is to balance our senses. When you want to walk, your legs move, when you need to pick something, your hand moves forward, when you want to see something, you look at it with your eyes. This is why the combination of touching this, bringing this, and doing this is done. It is the cerebellum that balances all these functions.

The brain stem connects all these parts of the brain. There are basically 12 cranial nerves in the brain. All parts of the body This is what keeps the company running.

Most of the blood consumed by the organs of the body is done by the brain. The brain size of boys and girls is different. Boys are bigger by 200 grams.

Brain like a lake

Looking at the brain from another point of view, it looks like a huge reservoir. We call it ventricles. Half a liter of water is being produced here daily.

It is like lees in that part of the brain. That's why water comes out. Because the brain needs water and fat. This is brain food.

In this way, the nutritious water released from something like lye gets irrigated at the upper, middle and lower levels of the brain and reaches the body and is released through various channels. When there is an obstacle in the way of this water coming out, the water freezes on the head. This is a very bad situation.

Therefore, the said water should have its own speed and rhythm. We call it 'holy water'.

In two parts of the throat, there is a large tube, through which blood is supplied to the brain. Along with this, the brain receives blood through two other means. 20-22 percent of the blood in the body is consumed by the brain.

The brain secretes many different chemicals for different functions.

The Amazing 'Master Gland'

In the middle of the brain, there is a gland the size of a grain of rice, which is called the pituitary gland. Nine hormones are secreted from this gland.

This hormone does everything like control of urination, menstrual discharge in women, milk flow, body growth. If there is an imbalance in this, there will be no menstruation, no urinary retention, no milk, short or too tall, too fat or thin. These hormones have a special role to make the body perform according to the correct standards.

There is also a certain time for the secretion of these hormones. Some hormones are secreted the most at eight o'clock in the morning and some at night. That is, hormones are not being secreted for 24 hours. Such hormones are secreted to match the rhythm of the body with nature.

If a child has a brain tumor, what are the symptoms?

 If a child has a brain tumor, what are the symptoms?

I wish that children would not get 'brain tumor'. Because after having a brain tumor, the risk is very high for them. One is that the treatment is not easy, the other is less chance of recovery.

I have a complaint to God, why send a child with such a tumor at birth?

However, contrary to our wishes, there are many cases of tumor in children. Especially this problem has come from birth. Why is this happening? It cannot be answered exactly. Because there have been countless researches on cancer so far. However, such a great achievement has not been achieved.

Usually, the most common cause of tumor is a malfunction of Jin. Why is gin bad? The exact reason for this has not been discovered. However, there is a problem when Jin does not develop as it should in general. Gin also has its own 'coding'. Sometimes abnormal cells develop due to mismatched coding. The same cell can grow and become a tumor. And, it can take the form of cancer.

Another thing is that it is said that such a disease is passed on to one's generation by inheritance. But, if that is the case, one person has four children. Only four people do not have tumors. Maybe in one person. Why not the other three?

There is no single concrete reason or answer for this tumor to develop and become cancer. Various things may have influenced it. First a tumor was visible. Now different sub-types (sub-types) of the same started appearing. Some are cured by the same treatment, some are not.

Increased risk of tumors in children

A child's brain tumor is more risky than an adult's. There are many reasons for this. On the one hand, the child cannot express what is happening to him. The child does not say that the head is aching, the eyes are getting weak, and the hearing ability is decreasing.

If there is a child under the age of one year, the speech will not come at all. Other children also do not get the melomeso to express the bad changes that are happening in their body. That is why when they are brought to the hospital, the problem becomes complicated. The tumor has grown.

Small head, big tumor. Complex treatment, weak body. It is difficult for the child's body to tolerate tumor surgery. Again, what has been seen so far is that the tumor on the child's head is in a very awkward place. Basically three types of tumors are seen in them, which are very bad tumors.

Now the tumor is surgically removed. However, if cancer has already occurred, further treatment is uncomfortable. It is difficult to give them chemotherapy, even radiotherapy.

Are there any symptoms of brain tumor in children?

All diseases have symptoms, but how many are known, and how many are not known. Similarly, some symptoms are compatible with other diseases. So the symptoms can sometimes be confusing.

If there is any problem in the brain or the brain, the child cannot hold its head up. We keep the head upright on the strength of the neck and turn it around. However, if there is a problem in the brain, the head can be tilted. Slowly the throat can't take it. Children become weak and small.

Likewise, the child's head may grow. We don't pay much attention to how a small child's head is growing. If it is growing unnaturally, there may be a problem.

Similarly, another clear symptom is that the baby's palate is open when it is small. It is sticky or flexible. It should be covered later. Generally, the palate should start covering when the baby is three months old, and the rostrum should be completely covered by one-and-a-half years. If an infant's palate does not cover or remains open, it should be suspected that they have a head problem. Initiatives should be taken for testing and treatment.

It is important for parents to be aware of whether their child is normal or not. Why are they crying? Why are they not accepting to eat milk? Why are they not seen as normal?

What is the treatment?

Abroad, especially in developed countries, the health of the baby is checked during pregnancy. It is also seen in the mother's womb whether there is a tumor or not. If there is a tumor, what kind is it? The first or second stage tumors can be treated with surgery. Therefore, the baby's tumor is surgically removed while remaining in the mother's womb. However, if it has reached the third and fourth stage, the doctor gives advice to the parents to avoid giving birth to the baby.

However, we do not have such technology or system. Therefore, some diseases are detected only after birth. That too only after the symptoms started to appear. By the time symptoms begin to appear, treatment may be too late.

Let's say we have a brain tumor in an infant or child, the treatment is very uncomfortable and risky. It cannot be said that good results will come even after treatment.

Then what to do to prevent such a problem in the child? There is no exact answer to this either. We have also mentioned above that, despite many research studies, the root cause of cancer has not been found. However, risk factors can be reduced.

For example, if the mother smokes cigarettes, drinks alcohol, or takes drugs during pregnancy, it seems that such problems are more common in their children. So you should stay away from these things as much as possible during pregnancy. Also, is the baby or child growing naturally, growing or not? Parents should take careful care of this. Any abnormal situation in the child should be immediately alerted.

Practice Of Social Change and Development in Asia

Practice Of Social Change and Development in Asia  

Remittances, Migration and Social Development 

A Conceptual Review of the Literature 

Hein de Haas

Hein De Haas has been a prominent scholar in the field of migration studies, and his work often delves into the interconnections between migration, remittances, and social development. Here is a conceptual review of the key themes in the literature:

1. **Remittances and Economic Impact:**

   - Scholars often explore how remittances, which are financial transfers sent by migrants to their home countries, impact the economic development of receiving communities. This includes assessing the role of remittances in poverty alleviation, household income, and local economic development.

2. **Social and Cultural Transformations:**

   - Migration and remittances can bring about social and cultural changes in both sending and receiving communities. Researchers may investigate the impact of migration on family structures, gender roles, and cultural practices.

3. **Developmental Consequences:**

   - The literature may discuss the broader developmental consequences of migration and remittances, considering factors such as education, healthcare, and overall human development indices in the context of remittance-receiving regions.

4. **Migration Policies and Social Development:**

   - De Haas might explore how migration policies, both in sending and receiving countries, influence the social development outcomes associated with migration and remittances. This could involve examining the role of policy frameworks in shaping the impact of migration on communities.

5. **Transnationalism and Social Networks:**

   - Hein De Haas may also focus on the transnational nature of migration and how social networks formed by migrants contribute to social development. This involves looking at how connections between migrants and their home communities shape economic and social outcomes.

6. **Critiques and Challenges:**

   - The literature may address critiques and challenges associated with the optimistic narratives around remittances and social development. This could include discussions on issues like dependency, inequality, and the potential negative consequences of relying heavily on remittances.

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**Introduction:**

The exploration of "Remittances, Migration, and Social Development: A Conceptual Review of The Literature" by Hein De Haas is a journey into the intricate dynamics of how migration, particularly through the flow of remittances, shapes social development. This topic holds particular relevance within the field of sociology as it examines not only the economic dimensions of migration but also its profound social and cultural consequences.

**Background on Hein De Haas:**

Hein De Haas, a luminary in the realm of migration studies, has significantly shaped our understanding of the interplay between migration and societal development. As a professor of Sociology at the University of Amsterdam, his research contributions encompass a diverse range of themes, from the economic impacts of remittances to the social and cultural transformations associated with migration.

**Objectives of the Conceptual Review:**

The overarching objective of this literature review is to glean insights into the multifaceted relationship between remittances, migration, and social development. By delving into De Haas's works, we aim to understand the nuanced connections and uncover the broader implications that extend beyond economic considerations.

**Remittances and Economic Impact:**

One of the central foci of De Haas's research involves examining how remittances, the financial lifelines sent by migrants to their home countries, contribute to the economic development of recipient communities. His work delves into the role of remittances in poverty alleviation, the augmentation of household income, and their influence in fostering local economic development.

**Social and Cultural Transformations:**

Migration is not a mere economic phenomenon; it entails profound social and cultural transformations. De Haas's insights shed light on how migration and the subsequent inflow of remittances influence family structures, redefine gender roles, and contribute to shifts in cultural practices within both sending and receiving communities.

**Developmental Consequences:**

Beyond the immediate economic impacts, migration and remittances have far-reaching consequences for societal development. Hein De Haas's conceptualization extends to factors such as education, healthcare, and overall human development indices within regions that receive remittances.

**Migration Policies and Social Development:**

Understanding the interplay between migration policies and social development outcomes is crucial. De Haas's research explores how policies in both sending and receiving countries shape the impact of migration, providing insights into the regulatory frameworks that influence the development trajectory of communities involved in migration processes.

**Transnationalism and Social Networks:**

Migration is inherently transnational, and De Haas's work delves into the complexities of social networks formed by migrants. These networks, extending across borders, play a pivotal role in shaping social and economic outcomes for both migrants and their home communities.

**Critiques and Challenges:**

In the pursuit of a comprehensive understanding, it is essential to consider critiques and challenges associated with optimistic narratives surrounding remittances. De Haas's research likely engages with issues such as dependency, inequality, and the potential negative consequences that may arise from an overreliance on remittance inflows.

**Conclusion:**

In conclusion, this conceptual review offers a nuanced exploration of remittances, migration, and social development through the lens of Hein De Haas's extensive contributions. The synthesis of economic, social, and cultural dimensions provides a holistic understanding of the complex interplay between migration processes and societal advancement.

**Questions and Discussion:**

As we open the floor to questions and discussion, we invite a thoughtful dialogue on the intricacies uncovered in this conceptual review. It is through such scholarly exchanges that we can further refine our comprehension of the profound implications of remittances and migration on social development.

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## Remittances, Migration, and Social Development: A Conceptual Review of the Literature by Hein de Haas

**Understanding the Intertwined Worlds:**

Hein de Haas, in his work titled "Remittances, Migration, and Social Development: A Conceptual Review of the Literature," delves into the complex relationship between remittances, migration, and social development in developing countries. He offers a comprehensive review of existing literature, building a framework to analyze the intricate ways these elements interact and shape diverse social realities.

**Beyond Sending Money:**

De Haas challenges the simplistic view of remittances as mere financial transfers. He argues that they are embedded within the broader context of migration, serving as a **critical element** in household livelihood strategies. Migrant families often send money back home to support basic needs, education, healthcare, and even entrepreneurial ventures. These remittances become vital lifelines, contributing to **poverty reduction** and improved **living standards**.

**Beyond Individual Benefits:**

The paper extends beyond individual impacts, exploring the potential of remittances to **spur broader social development**. Invested in productive activities, they can stimulate local economies, generate **employment opportunities**, and foster infrastructure development. Remittances can also contribute to **improved education** and **healthcare systems**, leading to an overall rise in human capital and well-being.

**A Complex Landscape:**

However, de Haas acknowledges the multifaceted nature of this relationship. Remittances can sometimes reinforce **inequalities** within communities, with wealthier households benefiting more. Brain drain, where skilled individuals migrate, can leave sending communities with **labor shortages** and hinder long-term development. Additionally, reliance on remittances can create **dependence**, making recipient communities less resilient to economic shocks.

**Navigating the Nuances:**

The paper emphasizes the need for **context-specific** analysis to understand the true impact of remittances on social development. Different factors, such as migration patterns, recipient country policies, and cultural dynamics, need to be considered to develop sustainable development strategies. De Haas calls for **policy interventions** that maximize the positive impacts of remittances while mitigating potential drawbacks.

**In Conclusion:**

"Remittances, Migration, and Social Development" by Hein de Haas is a valuable resource for any Master's Sociology student interested in the intersections of migration, development, and social realities. It provides a nuanced understanding of remittances, moving beyond simplistic narratives to highlight their complex interplay with social structures and their potential to both empower and challenge development paths.

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"Remittances, Migration and Social Development: A Conceptual Review of the Literature" by Hein De Haas is a comprehensive study that examines the role of migrant remittances in the development of sending countries. The paper can be divided into several key points:

1. **Migration and Development**: The study begins by discussing the relationship between migration and development, highlighting the importance of remittances as a key factor in the development process. It emphasizes that the developmental impact of migration depends on the interaction between migrants and their home communities, as well as the policies and programs implemented by both sending and receiving countries.

2. **Remittances and Poverty Reduction**: De Haas argues that remittances can play a significant role in reducing poverty, as they often flow to the poorest households and are used for basic needs such as food, housing, and education. However, the study also acknowledges that the developmental impact of remittances is not limited to poverty reduction, as they can also be used for infrastructure, health, and other community-level investments.

3. **The Role of Remittances in Development**: The paper explores the various ways in which remittances can contribute to development, including direct investments in infrastructure, health, and education, as well as indirect effects such as gender empowerment and social inclusion. It also discusses the potential trade-offs between different uses of remittances, such as the choice between investing in infrastructure or human capital.

4. **Challenges and Opportunities**: De Haas identifies several challenges in the literature on remittances and development, including the need for better data and more rigorous evaluation methods. He also highlights the potential of digital technologies to transform the way remittances are sent and used, as well as the role of diaspora organizations and networks in facilitating development projects.

5. **Future Research**: The study concludes by suggesting directions for future research on remittances and development. This includes a call for more interdisciplinary and longitudinal research, as well as a focus on the role of digital technologies and diaspora networks in shaping the development impact of remittances.

In summary, De Haas's "Remittances, Migration and Social Development: A Conceptual Review of the Literature" provides a comprehensive overview of the role of migrant remittances in the development of sending countries. By examining the various ways in which remittances can contribute to development, the study highlights the importance of understanding the complex interactions between migration, remittances, and development policies.

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