Gender Division of Labor and Social Construction of Sex Roles

Gender Division of Labor and Social Construction of Sex Roles

 ## Gender Division of Labor and Social Construction of Sex Roles

The gender division of labor refers to the allocation of different types of work to men and women, which is deeply rooted in societal norms and expectations. This division is not merely a reflection of biological differences but is largely a social construct that shapes and is shaped by cultural, economic, and historical contexts.

****Understanding the Gender Division of Labor

- **Definition**: The gender division of labor involves the systematic differentiation of tasks based on gender, where certain jobs are predominantly associated with men (e.g., construction, engineering) and others with women (e.g., nursing, teaching). This division extends beyond paid employment to include unpaid domestic work, caregiving, and other responsibilities typically assigned to women.

- **Historical Context**: Historically, the division of labor has been justified by notions of "natural" differences between the sexes. For instance, men were often seen as providers and protectors, while women were relegated to nurturing roles. These roles were considered essential for the survival and functioning of families and communities. However, as societies evolved, these roles became institutionalized, leading to persistent inequalities in economic status and power dynamics between genders[1][7].

- **Cultural Variability**: The division of labor is not uniform across cultures; it varies significantly based on social norms, economic structures, and historical developments. In some societies, women may engage in agricultural work alongside men, while in others, they may be excluded from certain types of labor altogether. This variability highlights that gender roles are socially constructed rather than biologically predetermined[5][6].

****Social Construction of Sex Roles

The social construction of sex roles plays a critical role in perpetuating the gender division of labor:

- **Stereotypes and Norms**: Societal norms dictate what behaviors are deemed appropriate for men and women, often steering individuals toward traditional roles from a young age. Boys might be encouraged to pursue assertive or technical subjects, while girls may be directed toward nurturing or artistic endeavors. These stereotypes limit individual choices and reinforce gendered expectations in both public and private spheres[2][4].

- **Value Assignments**: The work typically performed by men is often valued more highly than that done by women. This disparity manifests in wage gaps, occupational segregation, and unequal opportunities for advancement. For example, jobs predominantly held by women tend to offer lower pay and less prestige compared to male-dominated fields[1][4][7].

- **Institutional Reinforcement**: Institutions such as education systems, workplaces, and family structures reinforce gender roles through policies and practices that favor traditional divisions. For instance, parental leave policies that primarily benefit mothers can perpetuate the idea that childcare is primarily a woman's responsibility, thus limiting women's career prospects[3][4].

- **Doing Gender**: The concept of "doing gender," as articulated by sociologists like Judith Lorber and West & Zimmerman, emphasizes that individuals actively perform their gender roles through everyday interactions. This performance reinforces societal expectations about masculinity and femininity. For example, women may feel compelled to engage in housework or caregiving to align with societal norms about femininity, while men may avoid domestic tasks to uphold traditional notions of masculinity[6][7].

****Implications for Society

The implications of the gender division of labor are profound:

- **Economic Inequality**: The persistent gender division contributes to economic disparities between men and women. Women often face barriers to entry in high-paying fields and experience wage penalties associated with motherhood—known as the "motherhood penalty"—which further exacerbates economic inequalities[4][5].

- **Social Dynamics**: The division also influences social dynamics within families and communities. Traditional roles can lead to imbalances in power within households, affecting decision-making processes and contributing to broader patterns of inequality in society.

- **Changing Norms**: Efforts to challenge the gender division of labor are underway through various initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality in the workplace. This includes policies for equal pay, affirmative action programs, and campaigns encouraging women's participation in male-dominated fields such as STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics)[1][7].

In conclusion, the gender division of labor reflects a complex interplay between social norms, cultural expectations, and institutional practices that construct sex roles within society. Understanding this division as a social construct rather than a natural order allows for critical examination and potential transformation toward greater equity in both public and private spheres.

Citations:

[1] https://www.ineteconomics.org/events/ysi-africa-convening-1/gender-economics-the-gender-division-of-labour-diversity-and-change

[2] https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/gender-social-construction-hasanul-banna

[3] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4584401/

[4] https://www.economicsobservatory.com/what-explains-the-gender-division-of-labour-and-how-can-it-be-redressed

[5] https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119535812.ch2

[6] https://www.gla.ac.uk/0t4/crcees/files/summerschool/readings/WestZimmerman_1987_DoingGender.pdf

[7] https://sociology.institute/sociology-of-gender/gender-division-labour-social-implications/

[8] https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/172829970/Gender_Division_of_Labour_Pre_Print.pdf

HIV-infected sex life: how easy, how safe?

 HIV-infected sex life: how easy, how safe?

30-year-old Kiran Wali (name changed) from Kanchanpur is HIV positive. He says that his sex life has changed after being infected.

Because of the notion that HIV is a sexually transmitted disease, the society's view of HIV-infected people is different. That's why I find it difficult to talk to others about this issue," he says.

Because they are not able to openly discuss sexual and reproductive health like normal people, infected people do not have much knowledge about this matter. It is about the whole health of HIV-infected people. But Kiran says that there is not much to say about sexual and reproductive health.

He says that the sexual life of the infected person is similar to that of normal people, but because of taking drugs and having reduced immunity, the sexual desire may be reduced.

Women have to face more problems than men infected with HIV. HIV-infected women have more problems than normal women because their immunity is weaker. But there is no provision for special tests and treatment for them. Kiran says that the relevant authorities should pay attention to this matter.

HIV is a virus that destroys the human immune system. It is a microscopic virus that attacks the human immune system. As a result, the immune system becomes very weak and becomes unable to fight against diseases and infections. If it is found that HIV has entered the body of a person, that person is said to be infected with HIV.

The sexual life of the infected should be discussed

The main cause of HIV transmission is unprotected sex with an HIV infected person. But even after being infected, a person has a sexual life. Anup Adhikari, a research expert on the state of sexual and reproductive health rights, says that most of them do not know how to proceed with their sex life.

Counselors are available where infected people take ART (anti-retroviral therapy). But they do not give much information about sexual and reproductive health to infected people. Information is only given that ``wear a condom when having sex.''

Wearing a condom while having sex does not cover everything about sex. Why wear a condom? What happens when you wear it? What happens if you don't wear it? If both the husband and wife are infected, then why should they wear a condom? Officials say that information about such things should also be given to them.

Even if both husband and wife have HIV, condoms should be used during sexual intercourse. Because the virus is weak in one partner and strong in the other. In this case, having sex without a condom can cause the two viruses to mix with each other and increase the viral load. If this happens, the possibility of other infections will increase,” he says.

Infected people also have sexual desire. In this case, many infected people do not know what to do to achieve sexual satisfaction. There is not much center for counseling in this matter. Therefore, officials suggest that awareness should be spread among HIV-infected people about sexual and reproductive health.

If one of the two partners does not have HIV and the other only has it, then if two people have unprotected sex, then the child born from them may also have HIV. In this case, this may cause discord and discord between the couple. In this case, the official says that they should be informed that they can give birth to a healthy child if they pay attention to certain things and take the advice of a doctor.

A mother with HIV can give birth to a healthy baby

Shukraraj Tropical and Communicable Diseases Hospital Tekuki Medical Officer Dr. Leena Devkota says.

If the husband and wife are taking ART drugs regularly, we will check the status of the viral load. If the viral load in the body of an HIV-infected person is clinically low, the children born to infected women are healthy," she says. "An infected mother must take medication regularly to give birth to a healthy child."

If the husband is HIV infected but the wife is not infected, when they plan to have a child, the HIV infected husband should take medication to reduce the viral load. In addition, the healthy wife should also be given HIV medicine. Devkota says.

In this case, we give 'pre-exposure prophylaxis' medicine, that is, HIV medicine is given before the disease. This medicine is given until pregnancy occurs. After pregnancy, we stop giving medicine. After stopping the medicine while pregnant, husband and wife should not have any contact. In this way the mother is also safe and the child born from that mother is also safe. When the mother is HIV negative, the child will automatically become negative. Devkota says.

Children infected at birth need counseling

A child born infected at birth should be informed about it after understanding. Because some parents do not let them know that they are HIV infected. In this case, when they engage in sexual activities after becoming adults, it creates a problem.

If they come to know that they are infected after reaching adulthood without proper counseling, they may develop a sense of revenge such as 'If I am infected through no fault of mine, I will also pass the infection on to others'.

therefore Anup Adhikari, a research expert on sexual and reproductive health rights, says that parents should adequately discuss sexual and reproductive health issues with HIV-infected children.

"Parents should discuss sexual and reproductive health issues with an HIV-infected child," he says.

According to the official, the infected should reduce the viral load by taking regular medication. After that, you should only have sex with your partner using a condom. The method of using a condom should also be correct. The partner should know about his infection. It is not necessary to have a partner for sexual satisfaction, they should also be informed that sextoys (sex toys) can also be used,'' says the official.

Now there is no risk of HIV?

HIV positive was considered as a terrible infection. The disease, transmitted through unprotected sex with an infected person, was described as 'fatal'. Therefore, people used to fear that they might have HIV infection even when they get a common sexually transmitted disease.

For various reasons, it was not easy for those infected with HIV to live a normal life. What happens after contracting HIV? Can they work or not? How many live? The question would have been thrown at them. Because the infected people did not receive medical treatment in the beginning. The drug was not researched. Therefore, the risk of death due to infection was high.

But now the situation is not like that. There is no discussion of HIV infection, nor the fear of possible death from it.

Medicines are now readily available. Even those infected with HIV can lead a normal life by taking medication for chronic diseases like diabetes and high blood pressure. Because of this, now the fear of this disease has decreased.

Has the fear of HIV decreased or the infection rate?

The HIV infection rate has decreased slightly. But the fear has decreased a lot. Medicines were not available when the infection spread in Nepal. Even if it was available, the other infected person would get the medicine only after the death of the first infected person.

Now, as soon as HIV infection is detected, medication is started after counseling. Medicines are started in 3-4 days after the infection is confirmed. After taking the medicine, the infected person does not get AIDS, which has reduced the fear.

According to the data of the National AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Diseases Control Center, it has been found that the HIV infection rate is decreasing in Nepal. In two decades, the rate of new HIV infections has decreased by almost 84 percent. Likewise, deaths due to AIDS have decreased by 71 percent.

Reasons for reducing the fear of HIV

The main reason for the decrease in the fear of HIV is that drug treatment is becoming more effective. As soon as it is infected, treatment is available. As a result, the number of infected people is decreasing all over the world. Public awareness about this infection has also spread well, so the number of new infected is decreasing. Even those who are infected do not reach the stage of AIDS.

Although the fear has decreased, there has been no change in the behavior of HIV infected people. There has been no change in their view. The risk of HIV infection is now higher in the age group of 18 to 40 years.

The belief that life ends after HIV infection is no longer the case. If the drug is taken regularly, there will be no death due to HIV. Infected people can also live like other normal people.

Even the infected can live a full life

Even those infected with HIV can live a full life. New HIV drugs are now available, and people who take them regularly can live their entire lives.

If one of the husband or wife is HIV positive and one is negative, then the one who is negative is given medicine called Prep. Those who are positive take their own medicine. By doing this, the child born from that couple becomes negative and the partner also becomes negative, so as many as 15 children have been born.

Symptoms of HIV infection

No symptoms may appear for five to seven years after HIV infection. Common problems such as fever and diarrhea may not be seen, so many people think that 'I am healthy, I have no health problems'. People do not think that they are at risk of HIV. During this time, he may be transmitting the infection to others. If the symptoms appeared as soon as the infection occurred, then everyone would have access to treatment.

Symptoms start appearing only after 5-7 years of HIV infection. After infection, the body is unable to fight the infectious disease, which causes symptoms such as fever, diarrhea and weight loss for a long time.

HIV is a type of virus. It attacks and weakens our immune system. When someone is infected with HIV, their body becomes unable to fight off infectious diseases. The HIV virus destroys these cells of the immune system. If the HIV virus is not treated on time, the infection starts to increase in the body and it can lead to AIDS.

How to make sex life easier for people with high blood pressure and heart disease?

 How to make sex life easier for people with high blood pressure and heart disease?

Sex is a natural need. However, many people with heart problems may have a question - doesn't sexual activity put the heart at greater risk?

It is natural to have this dilemma. Because as much as other health problems are openly discussed, not so much is discussed about sex. Patients do not openly ask questions about this due to hesitation with doctors. So that it may be affecting the sex life directly and indirectly.

Does having heart problems affect your sex life?

Factors such as physical and mental condition, appropriate person and environment can make a difference in the outcome of sex. But sex is a basic need and it is not considered a taboo subject even in any disease.

It is considered safe to have sex even in people with heart problems. According to a journal published in the Johns Hopkins Medicine Organization, cohabitation is considered safe for people with heart and high blood pressure who have no problem climbing stairs, walking and running for some distance. If there are no symptoms, there is no objection to intercourse.

But during the extreme stimulation of sexual intercourse, heart rate increases and blood pressure also increases, so the heart may be under more pressure. For this reason, it is necessary to take some precautions in people with heart artery disease. But it is not necessary to stay away from sexual contact.

If the chest becomes heavy during normal swaying or climbing stairs, there may be some risk of heart attack during sexual intercourse. In such a case, after examining a cardiologist, proper treatment can be given and sexual activity can be done after consulting about precautionary measures.

Post-heart attack condition

It is not good to do too much physical activity for the first two weeks after a heart attack. After that, when the chest is not heavy while swinging and it is easy to do moderate physical activity, then it is possible to have sex. But the condition of being able to have sex and not being able to have sex may differ from person to person.

How to facilitate sex life after a heart attack?

- Husband and wife should talk about their interests and situation without keeping any distance between them.

- A healthy person between husband and wife should help each other by understanding each other's situation.

- Do not have sex immediately after eating.

- Fear should be removed from the mind. Sometimes you can't enjoy sex if you are afraid of having heart problems during intercourse.

- If the chest becomes heavy during intercourse, it may be necessary to stop the activity immediately and take medicine of the "nitrate" group. What the doctor may have said during the consultation.

- If you feel uncomfortable, you should consult a doctor.

Effects of sex on hypertension and cardiovascular disease

In people with high blood pressure and heart disease, the interest in sex is low and the male sex is not stimulated, it takes more time to get excited, and the excitement may not last for a long time. Women may also experience less interest and vaginal dryness and more pain.

the reason

Just as fatty substances accumulate in the blood vessels of the heart and brain and become narrowed, the blood vessels of the penis and vagina also become narrowed when the blood pressure increases. And, the blood flow decreases, which can decrease sexual interest in both.

Sometimes, heart and high blood pressure patients think they are weak without any reason and weaken their self-esteem, so they don't show priority in sex and cannot get full satisfaction. A condition that requires psychological counseling.

Similarly, some medicines related to heart and high blood pressure also affect sexual function. Medicines of the 'thiazide' and 'beta blocker' group used for high blood pressure can reduce sexual interest, lack of extreme pleasure, and decrease in sexual stimulation.

Studies have shown that about 10 percent of young and old people taking these drugs have this effect. Similarly, drugs such as digoxin and sparonolactone, which are used for heart disease, can also reduce sexual desire and cause pain and swelling in men's breasts.

Those with heart rhythm problems may also experience lack of sexual desire and sexual satisfaction. In addition, sexual desire can decrease in diseases such as high blood pressure, various hormone-related conditions, kidney disease, and long-standing uncontrolled diabetes.

What is the solution?

Medicines such as Viagra can be taken to increase sexual arousal. But before taking this medicine, you should consult a doctor.

Alternative medicines can be used on the advice of a doctor, depending on the age and condition of the person, instead of the drugs of the 'thiazide' and 'beta blocker' group used for high blood pressure and the drugs like 'digoxin' and 'sparonolactone' used for heart disease.

Taking Viagra can be fatal for people who are taking drugs from the 'nitrate' group. Apart from that, people with very high or low blood pressure, recent heart attack patients, kidney and liver diseases should not take Viagra.

Some tips for newlyweds about sex life

 Some tips for newlyweds about sex life

When you think of honeymoon, you only think of things related to empty sex, which is wrong. During this period, those who have a love marriage get a chance to understand each other more than those who have a love marriage. If you go somewhere during the honeymoon period, you will have a sweet memory for the rest of your life.

But it is better to know the sexual health problems that occur during the honeymoon and their solutions and safe sex methods. In matters of sex, the newlyweds should not be in a hurry to have sex, especially to show the aggressive behavior of men. It is better to have information about some aspects of sexual stimulation that can be done before sex rather than having sex once a day.

Listening to veg-non-veg jokes and using sexual organs can be done before intercourse. It is good for the couple to consume light alcohol as it helps in sexual performance. But from the point of view of safety, i.e. because you have to provide protection to your wife, you should not drink while drunk. Perfume can be used to remove sweat and body odor.

Since the membrane (hymen) in the vagina can be easily torn while learning to ride a bicycle, ride a bike, or ride a horse in the teenage years, there should not be any disagreement between the couple regarding the issue of virginity being broken depending on whether or not the membrane (hymen) is present in the vagina during the first sexual intercourse. Similarly, some men may have the problem of premature ejaculation, which is called premature ejaculation. This problem may have been due to mental reasons.

As mentioned above, if you do pre-sexual activities, you can increase your confidence and get rid of the problem of premature ejaculation. In addition, one should not dwell on sexual thoughts long before intercourse, stop and start sexual intercourse during intercourse, change posture, hold the bottom of the penis, use a condom, and exercise control of ejaculation by using muscles.

Frequent urinary tract infections are one of the other common problems that appear after starting to have sex. Which is also known as honeymoon cystitis (bladder infection) in medical language. Also, slight bleeding may occur due to injury to the hymen after the initial intercourse.

Among the pleasures or pleasures that a person can get, the extreme pleasure that can be obtained during sexual activity is probably the best category. In men, peak pleasure is achieved a little sooner, while in women, it is achieved only after a long interval. Men should be especially careful about this. Because even though there are still educated and modern girls in Nepal, they hesitate to express that they are not satisfied. If this matter is ignored and taken lightly, mental problems i.e. depression (sadness) may gradually appear in women.

Some couples, especially the female partner, may experience more pain than usual during intercourse. Which is called dyspareunia in medical language. Dyspareunia occurs when there is insufficient production of vaginal fluid, vaginal dryness, muscle contractions around the genitals due to fear or fear of sexual activity, chronic female genital infections, and blood clots around the uterus (endometriosis) after menstruation.

Males with erectile dysfunction can use drugs that increase sexual arousal. But in stressful or fearful situations and places, even if you try to have sex in a hurry, there may be a problem of not stimulating the sex, you should be careful about this. If a child is born within a month or a year of marriage, the happiness of married life may decrease due to additional responsibilities. Therefore, to enjoy marriage for some time, it is better for the couple to have children only after a few years of marriage.

Condom is the proper family planning tool for newly married couples to prevent pregnancy. Care must be taken when using the condom so that it does not break. Condoms can break in stressful or fearful situations and under pressure to demonstrate sexual ability. If the condom breaks, sexual intercourse should be stopped immediately, the penis should be removed, the genitals should be cleaned, and the penis should be changed.

There should be knowledge that pregnancy results from ovum expulsion, ejaculation during sexual intercourse, ovum fertilization, ovum implantation. Therefore, every woman should know the period of pregnancy according to her menstrual cycle. Condoms should be used during this period of pregnancy. During the rest of the time, you can have sexual contact openly without a condom.

Even if both these efforts fail, there is no need to panic, because pills can be used to get rid of emergency pregnancy. For this, four pills should be taken as the first dose within 72 hours of intercourse and the second dose after 12 hours.

Keeping this in mind, progesterone-only pills can be used, while condoms can be used for five days after unprotected intercourse. Even after that, in case of extensive stress, urine test and other safety measures can be adopted after consulting a gynecologist.

Pornography can destroy a couple's sex life

Various studies have shown that with the prevalence of the Internet, most people are addicted to pornography. Not only in Nepal, the number of people watching pornography is high all over the world. According to a study conducted by a website, more than 300 million people worldwide are watching porn videos at the same time.

To avoid allergies in cold weather, do not allow the skin to become dry

With the onset of winter, various skin problems begin to appear. Dry skin can cause cracking, swelling, redness, itching, and roughness.