Gender Dimension of Disability

 Gender Dimension of Disability

### Unit V: Gender Dimension of Disability (9 hours)

This unit explores the gendered experiences of individuals with disabilities, with a focus on the intersectionality of gender, disability, and sexuality. It delves into the specific challenges that women with disabilities face, including violence and issues related to sexuality. The unit addresses how social, cultural, and legal frameworks shape the lived experiences of disabled women, and emphasizes the importance of recognizing their unique struggles and rights.

---

### **A. Experience of Women with Disabilities**

1. **Exclusion from Feminist Agendas**

   - **Ghai (2002)**, in *Disabled Women: An Excluded Agenda of Indian Feminism*, discusses the ways in which disabled women have been marginalized both within the feminist movement and in broader society. Feminism often overlooks the specific challenges that disabled women face, such as social isolation, economic dependency, and limited access to education and employment. Ghai argues that disabled women’s experiences need to be integrated into mainstream feminist discourse in order to build an inclusive movement that addresses the needs of all women.

   

2. **Vulnerability Without Support in Nepal**

   - **Dhungana (2006)** examines the experiences of disabled women in Nepal in *The Lives of Disabled Women in Nepal: Vulnerability Without Support*. Disabled women in Nepal often face extreme vulnerability due to the lack of social support, economic independence, and adequate healthcare. They are more likely to be excluded from educational opportunities and suffer from a lack of employment prospects, making them dependent on their families or the state. Dhungana emphasizes the need for stronger social protection systems and community support for disabled women in Nepal.

---

### **B. Violence Against Women with Disabilities**

1. **Silence and Paradox**

   - **Chenoweth (1996)**, in *Violence and Women With Disabilities: Silence and Paradox*, discusses how violence against women with disabilities is often ignored or underreported. Disabled women are more vulnerable to abuse due to their dependency on caregivers, social isolation, and the societal perception that they are weak or incapable. Chenoweth highlights the paradoxical situation where disabled women are often silenced and their abuse goes unnoticed or is dismissed as less significant.

   

2. **Domestic Violence and Disability**

   - **Mays (2006)** explores the intersection of disability and domestic violence in *Feminist Disability Theory: Domestic Violence Against Women with a Disability*. Disabled women are more likely to experience domestic violence, and they face unique barriers in seeking help, such as inaccessible shelters and services that do not cater to their specific needs. Mays calls for an expansion of feminist disability theory to address the prevalence of violence against disabled women and the need for inclusive, accessible services.

3. **CREA Research Report**

   - The **CREA (2011)** report, *Count Me In: Violence Against Disabled, Lesbian, and Sex-Working Women in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal*, highlights the compounded marginalization faced by disabled women who belong to other marginalized groups, such as lesbian and sex-working communities. The report reveals that these women face intersecting forms of violence and discrimination and calls for a more inclusive approach to addressing violence that takes into account these overlapping vulnerabilities.

---

### **C. Disability and Sexuality**

1. **Rights and Recognition of Disabled Sexuality**

   - **Shakespeare (2000)** in *Disabled Sexuality: Toward Rights and Recognition*, advocates for the recognition of the sexual rights of disabled individuals. Disabled people, particularly women, are often desexualized by society and denied the opportunity to express their sexuality freely. Shakespeare argues that sexuality is a human right and that society must recognize the sexual agency of disabled individuals and create an environment where they can experience fulfilling sexual lives without stigma.

2. **The Sociopolitical Economy of Disability and Sexuality**

   - **Shildrick (2007)**, in *Contested Pleasures: The Sociopolitical Economy of Disability and Sexuality*, explores the complex ways in which disabled sexuality is regulated and controlled. Disabled people are often seen as asexual or hypersexual, depending on societal prejudices. Shildrick discusses how these perceptions shape the sexual experiences of disabled individuals, particularly women, and emphasizes the need for policies and practices that respect the sexual autonomy of people with disabilities.

3. **Experience of Motherhood for Disabled Women**

   - **Khanal (2012)**, in *Experience of Motherhood of Disabled Women*, explores the experiences of disabled women who are mothers. Motherhood is often seen as incompatible with disability, and disabled women who become mothers face significant challenges, including societal stigma, inadequate healthcare, and a lack of support services. Khanal emphasizes that these women’s experiences must be recognized and supported, and that disability should not be seen as a barrier to motherhood.

---

### **Conclusion**

Unit V on "Gender Dimension of Disability" emphasizes the intersection of gender and disability, focusing on the unique challenges that disabled women face. It highlights their experiences of marginalization, vulnerability to violence, and the complex relationship between disability and sexuality. The readings in this unit provide insights into the ways that disabled women are excluded from feminist discourses, subjected to violence, and denied their sexual and reproductive rights. By understanding these issues, scholars and practitioners can work toward creating more inclusive policies and practices that address the specific needs of disabled women.

---

### Key Readings:

1. **Experience of Women with Disabilities**:

   - Ghai, A. (2002). Disabled Women: An Excluded Agenda of Indian Feminism.

   - Dhungana, B. M. (2006). The Lives of Disabled Women in Nepal: Vulnerability Without Support.

2. **Violence Against Women with Disabilities**:

   - Chenoweth, L. (1996). Violence and Women With Disabilities: Silence and Paradox.

   - Mays, J. M. (2006). Feminist Disability Theory: Domestic Violence Against Women with a Disability.

   - CREA (2011). Count Me In Research Report: Violence Against Disabled, Lesbian, and Sex-Working Women in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal.

3. **Disability and Sexuality**:

   - Shakespeare, T. (2000). Disabled Sexuality: Toward Rights and Recognition.

   - Shildrick, M. (2007). Contested Pleasures: The Sociopolitical Economy of Disability and Sexuality.

   - Khanal, A. N. (2012). Experience of Motherhood of Disabled Women.

Here are **top 10 potential exam questions** based on the topics from the units you've covered:

---

### **Unit I: Understanding Ageing**

1. **Population dynamics**: Discuss the global and national trends in population ageing from 1950 to 2050. What are the political, economic, and social implications of these trends?

2. **Definitions of ageing**: Compare and contrast the varied definitions and applications of ageing, including the concept of active ageing and its determinants.

3. **Gerontology and geriatrics**: Outline the history of gerontology and geriatrics and discuss their significance in the study of ageing.

4. **Theoretical perspectives**: Evaluate different theoretical perspectives on the sociology of ageing. How do these perspectives contribute to understanding the ageing process in society?

---

### **Unit II: Legal Frameworks and Implementations**

5. **International frameworks on ageing**: Analyze the significance of international conferences such as the First and Second World Assemblies on Ageing, the Madrid International Plan of Action (MIPAA), and the UN Principles for Older Persons in shaping global ageing policies.

6. **National frameworks on ageing**: Assess the effectiveness of Nepal's **National Action Plan for Senior Citizens (2006)** and **Senior Citizens Act (2007)** in addressing the needs and rights of older people. How do these frameworks compare to global standards?

---

### **Unit III: Emerging Issues and Challenges of Ageing**

7. **Challenges of ageing populations**: Identify the key challenges posed by an ageing population globally and in Nepal. How do these challenges impact healthcare, social security, and economic stability?

8. **Elder abuse and violence**: Discuss the prevalence and forms of elder abuse and violence in Nepal. What legal and social measures are in place to protect older people, and how effective are they?

---

### **Unit IV: Understanding Disability**

9. **Beyond medical and social models**: Critically evaluate the limitations of both the medical and social models of disability. What alternative perspectives have emerged to better address the complexity of disability in contemporary society?

10. **Feminist disability theory**: Explain the contributions of feminist disability theory. How does it address the intersection of gender and disability, particularly in relation to body image, sexuality, and the experiences of disabled women?

---

These questions encourage both theoretical understanding and practical analysis of ageing and disability issues, helping you prepare for critical discussions and written exams.

Gender Division of Labor and Social Construction of Sex Roles

Gender Division of Labor and Social Construction of Sex Roles

 ## Gender Division of Labor and Social Construction of Sex Roles

The gender division of labor refers to the allocation of different types of work to men and women, which is deeply rooted in societal norms and expectations. This division is not merely a reflection of biological differences but is largely a social construct that shapes and is shaped by cultural, economic, and historical contexts.

****Understanding the Gender Division of Labor

- **Definition**: The gender division of labor involves the systematic differentiation of tasks based on gender, where certain jobs are predominantly associated with men (e.g., construction, engineering) and others with women (e.g., nursing, teaching). This division extends beyond paid employment to include unpaid domestic work, caregiving, and other responsibilities typically assigned to women.

- **Historical Context**: Historically, the division of labor has been justified by notions of "natural" differences between the sexes. For instance, men were often seen as providers and protectors, while women were relegated to nurturing roles. These roles were considered essential for the survival and functioning of families and communities. However, as societies evolved, these roles became institutionalized, leading to persistent inequalities in economic status and power dynamics between genders[1][7].

- **Cultural Variability**: The division of labor is not uniform across cultures; it varies significantly based on social norms, economic structures, and historical developments. In some societies, women may engage in agricultural work alongside men, while in others, they may be excluded from certain types of labor altogether. This variability highlights that gender roles are socially constructed rather than biologically predetermined[5][6].

****Social Construction of Sex Roles

The social construction of sex roles plays a critical role in perpetuating the gender division of labor:

- **Stereotypes and Norms**: Societal norms dictate what behaviors are deemed appropriate for men and women, often steering individuals toward traditional roles from a young age. Boys might be encouraged to pursue assertive or technical subjects, while girls may be directed toward nurturing or artistic endeavors. These stereotypes limit individual choices and reinforce gendered expectations in both public and private spheres[2][4].

- **Value Assignments**: The work typically performed by men is often valued more highly than that done by women. This disparity manifests in wage gaps, occupational segregation, and unequal opportunities for advancement. For example, jobs predominantly held by women tend to offer lower pay and less prestige compared to male-dominated fields[1][4][7].

- **Institutional Reinforcement**: Institutions such as education systems, workplaces, and family structures reinforce gender roles through policies and practices that favor traditional divisions. For instance, parental leave policies that primarily benefit mothers can perpetuate the idea that childcare is primarily a woman's responsibility, thus limiting women's career prospects[3][4].

- **Doing Gender**: The concept of "doing gender," as articulated by sociologists like Judith Lorber and West & Zimmerman, emphasizes that individuals actively perform their gender roles through everyday interactions. This performance reinforces societal expectations about masculinity and femininity. For example, women may feel compelled to engage in housework or caregiving to align with societal norms about femininity, while men may avoid domestic tasks to uphold traditional notions of masculinity[6][7].

****Implications for Society

The implications of the gender division of labor are profound:

- **Economic Inequality**: The persistent gender division contributes to economic disparities between men and women. Women often face barriers to entry in high-paying fields and experience wage penalties associated with motherhood—known as the "motherhood penalty"—which further exacerbates economic inequalities[4][5].

- **Social Dynamics**: The division also influences social dynamics within families and communities. Traditional roles can lead to imbalances in power within households, affecting decision-making processes and contributing to broader patterns of inequality in society.

- **Changing Norms**: Efforts to challenge the gender division of labor are underway through various initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality in the workplace. This includes policies for equal pay, affirmative action programs, and campaigns encouraging women's participation in male-dominated fields such as STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics)[1][7].

In conclusion, the gender division of labor reflects a complex interplay between social norms, cultural expectations, and institutional practices that construct sex roles within society. Understanding this division as a social construct rather than a natural order allows for critical examination and potential transformation toward greater equity in both public and private spheres.

Citations:

[1] https://www.ineteconomics.org/events/ysi-africa-convening-1/gender-economics-the-gender-division-of-labour-diversity-and-change

[2] https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/gender-social-construction-hasanul-banna

[3] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4584401/

[4] https://www.economicsobservatory.com/what-explains-the-gender-division-of-labour-and-how-can-it-be-redressed

[5] https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119535812.ch2

[6] https://www.gla.ac.uk/0t4/crcees/files/summerschool/readings/WestZimmerman_1987_DoingGender.pdf

[7] https://sociology.institute/sociology-of-gender/gender-division-labour-social-implications/

[8] https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/172829970/Gender_Division_of_Labour_Pre_Print.pdf

Judith Lorber's Concept of "Doing Gender"

  Judith Lorber's Concept of "Doing Gender"

## Judith Lorber's Concept of "Doing Gender"

Judith Lorber is a prominent sociologist who has significantly contributed to the understanding of gender as a social construct. Her concept of "doing gender" is pivotal in examining how gender is not merely an identity or role but an active, ongoing process that individuals engage in through everyday interactions.

****Understanding "Doing Gender"

The concept of "doing gender" was originally articulated by Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman in their seminal 1987 article, which Lorber later expanded upon. They argue that gender is a routine accomplishment embedded in social interactions, meaning that it is something people actively perform rather than simply possess. This performance is shaped by societal norms and expectations regarding what it means to be male or female.

Key points about "doing gender" include:

- **Routine Accomplishment**: Gender is not a static attribute; it is continuously enacted in daily life. Individuals engage in behaviors, expressions, and interactions that align with societal expectations of their assigned gender.

- **Social Context**: The performance of gender varies depending on the social context, including factors such as time, place, and the people present. For instance, a person may behave differently in a professional setting compared to a casual gathering with friends.

- **Interactional Work**: "Doing gender" involves a complex set of activities that are socially guided. Individuals navigate their interactions with an awareness of how their behaviors may be perceived as masculine or feminine. This includes everything from language use to body language and attire.

- **Accountability**: Individuals are held accountable for their gender performances by others in society. This means that deviations from expected gender norms can lead to social sanctions or disapproval, reinforcing the importance of conforming to these roles.

****Gender as a Social Construct

Lorber emphasizes that gender is fundamentally a social institution that shapes various aspects of social life. It organizes expectations for behavior and roles within families, workplaces, and broader societal structures. By framing gender as socially constructed, Lorber challenges the notion that biological differences dictate gender roles. Instead, she posits that these roles are created and maintained through social interactions and cultural norms.

This perspective aligns with the idea that:

- **Gender Roles are Learned**: From an early age, individuals learn what behaviors are considered appropriate for their gender through family upbringing, education, and media representations. These learned behaviors become ingrained as part of one's identity.

- **Performance Reinforces Gender Norms**: As individuals "do gender," they not only express their identities but also reinforce the existing gender norms within society. For example, when men engage in traditionally masculine activities or women in nurturing roles, they contribute to the perpetuation of these stereotypes.

- **Fluidity and Change**: While traditional notions of masculinity and femininity are deeply entrenched, Lorber acknowledges that societal changes—such as increased visibility of LGBTQ+ identities—challenge these binary constructs. The emergence of non-binary and fluid gender identities highlights the evolving nature of how gender is understood and performed.

In summary, Judith Lorber's concept of "doing gender" underscores the idea that gender is an active process shaped by social interactions rather than a fixed characteristic. This perspective invites critical examination of how societal norms influence individual behavior and highlights the potential for change in understanding and performing gender within various contexts. By recognizing the performative nature of gender, sociologists can better analyze the complexities surrounding identity, power dynamics, and social structures related to gender in contemporary society.

Citations:

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Lorber

[2] https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1749431.The_Social_Construction_of_Gender

[3] https://www.gla.ac.uk/0t4/crcees/files/summerschool/readings/WestZimmerman_1987_DoingGender.pdf

[4] https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0891243287001002002

[5] https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter12-gender-sex-and-sexuality/

[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender

[7] https://www.academia.edu/110759225/The_Social_Construction_of_Gender

[8] https://sociology.morrisville.edu/readings/SOCI101/SOS28-Lorber-NightToHisDay.pdf

Social Construction of Gender

Social Construction of Gender

 

## Social Construction of Gender

Sociologists distinguish between *sex* and *gender* to better understand the complexities of human identity and social roles. This differentiation is crucial for analyzing how societal norms shape individual experiences and behaviors.

****Differentiating Sex and Gender

- **Sex** refers to the biological characteristics that define humans as male or female. This includes primary sex characteristics, such as reproductive organs, and secondary characteristics, like body hair and breast development, which are influenced by hormones. These traits are generally consistent across cultures and are assigned at birth based on physical anatomy.

- **Gender**, on the other hand, is a social construct that encompasses the roles, behaviors, activities, and expectations that society considers appropriate for men and women. Gender identity refers to an individual's personal sense of their gender, which may not necessarily align with their biological sex. For example, a person assigned female at birth may identify as male or non-binary.

This distinction allows sociologists to explore how gender roles are not fixed or inherent but are shaped by cultural norms and socialization processes. 

****Social Construction of Gender in Everyday Life

The social construction of gender occurs through various mechanisms in everyday life:

- **Socialization**: From a young age, individuals learn gender roles through family dynamics, educational institutions, peer interactions, and media representations. Children are often socialized into gender roles that dictate how they should behave based on their assigned sex. For example, boys may be encouraged to engage in competitive sports while girls may be steered toward nurturing activities.

- **Cultural Norms**: Different cultures have varying expectations regarding masculinity and femininity. For instance, while wearing dresses may be considered feminine in many Western societies, in other cultures it can be a masculine attire. This variability illustrates that gender is not a universal truth but rather a product of cultural context.

- **Language and Symbols**: Language plays a significant role in reinforcing gender norms. Terms associated with masculinity often carry connotations of strength and assertiveness, while femininity might be linked to nurturing and passivity. The way people communicate about gender can perpetuate stereotypes and influence perceptions.

- **Performance**: The concept of "doing gender" suggests that individuals actively perform their gender roles in social interactions. This performance is shaped by societal expectations; for example, a woman who exhibits assertiveness in a professional setting may be labeled as "bossy," while a man displaying the same behavior might be seen as a strong leader. This ongoing performance reinforces the idea that gender is not merely an identity but an active process influenced by social contexts.

- **Institutional Structures**: Organizations and institutions also play a role in constructing gender norms through policies and practices that reflect societal values. For example, workplace cultures may favor masculine traits in leadership roles, leading to systemic barriers for women or those who do not conform to traditional gender roles.

In summary, the sociology of gender emphasizes that gender is a socially constructed phenomenon influenced by cultural norms, socialization processes, language, performance, and institutional structures. Understanding this construction helps to reveal the underlying power dynamics at play in society and highlights opportunities for challenging traditional notions of gender.

Citations:

[1] https://othersociologist.com/sociology-of-gender/

[2] https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology3rdedition/chapter/12-1-the-difference-between-sex-gender-and-sexuality/

[3] https://www.123helpme.com/essay/A-Reflection-On-Gender-Is-A-Social-FCDCM9GUD26

[4] https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter12-gender-sex-and-sexuality/

[5] https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/11-1-understanding-sex-and-gender/

[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender

[7] https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-introductiontosociology/chapter/theoretical-perspectives-on-gender/

Sociology of Gender

 Sociology of Gender

## Sociology of Gender

The sociology of gender is a field that examines how gender identities and roles are constructed, maintained, and challenged within social contexts. It explores the complex interplay between gender, power, culture, and social structures, focusing on the ways in which gender shapes experiences and opportunities in various spheres of life, including work, education, family, and politics.

****Historical Context and Development

The study of gender in sociology has evolved significantly over the past century. Early sociological research often conflated sex (biological differences) with gender (socially constructed roles), leading to a limited understanding of how these concepts interact. However, as feminist movements gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, scholars began to differentiate between sex and gender, recognizing that gender is a social construct influenced by cultural norms and power dynamics.

Research published in *Social Forces* over the last hundred years illustrates this shift. Initially focused on biological determinism, scholarship has increasingly adopted a structural perspective that considers how gender operates across multiple levels—individual, institutional, and societal. This transition has allowed for a more nuanced understanding of how gender intersects with other forms of social stratification such as race, class, and sexuality[1].

****Theoretical Perspectives

Sociologists employ various theoretical frameworks to analyze gender:

- **Functionalism**: This perspective views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability. Functionalists argue that traditional gender roles serve a purpose in maintaining social order. For example, they suggest that men’s roles as breadwinners and women’s roles as caregivers are functional for family stability.

- **Conflict Theory**: Conflict theorists emphasize the power struggles between different groups within society. They argue that gender inequality arises from the dominance of men over women in patriarchal societies. This perspective highlights how economic systems exploit women's labor and perpetuate gender disparities.

- **Symbolic Interactionism**: This micro-level approach focuses on daily interactions and the meanings individuals attach to gender roles. It examines how societal norms shape individual behavior and identity. For instance, it explores how language and symbols reinforce traditional notions of masculinity and femininity[3][7].

Each of these perspectives contributes to a comprehensive understanding of how gender operates within society.

****Intersectionality

A critical development in the sociology of gender is the concept of intersectionality, which recognizes that individuals experience multiple identities simultaneously (e.g., race, class, sexuality) that intersect to create unique experiences of oppression or privilege. This framework encourages researchers to consider how various social categories interact to shape individuals' experiences and access to resources[4].

For instance, Black women may face different challenges than white women due to the compounded effects of racism and sexism. Intersectional analysis has expanded the scope of gender studies by highlighting the importance of context in understanding inequality.

****Gender in Education

The sociology of gender also critically examines educational institutions as sites where gender norms are reinforced or challenged. Research indicates that educational settings often perpetuate traditional gender roles through curricula, teacher-student interactions, and school culture. For example, studies have shown that boys are often encouraged to pursue STEM fields while girls may be steered toward humanities[4].

Moreover, issues such as bullying based on non-conformity to traditional gender roles can lead to significant disparities in educational outcomes for LGBTQ+ students. The field advocates for inclusive practices that recognize diverse identities and promote equity within educational settings.

****Contemporary Issues

In recent years, the sociology of gender has expanded its focus to include contemporary issues such as:

- **Transgender Rights**: Increasing recognition of transgender individuals has prompted sociologists to explore how societal norms around gender binary are being challenged. Research highlights the discrimination faced by transgender individuals in various domains including healthcare, employment, and legal rights.

- **Workplace Inequality**: Despite progress toward equality, women continue to face significant barriers in the workplace, including wage gaps and underrepresentation in leadership positions. Sociologists analyze these disparities through lenses such as organizational culture and labor market dynamics[6].

- **Global Perspectives**: The global dimension of gender studies examines how cultural differences shape experiences of gender inequality around the world. Issues such as reproductive rights, violence against women, and access to education are critical areas of focus for sociologists studying gender on a global scale[8].

In summary, the sociology of gender is a dynamic field that encompasses a wide range of issues related to identity, power dynamics, and social structures. It continues to evolve as new challenges emerge in society regarding equality and representation across different genders. Through various theoretical lenses and intersectional approaches, sociologists aim to understand and address the complexities surrounding gender in contemporary life.

Citations:

[1] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10100580/

[2] https://www.isa-sociology.org/en/publications/isa-journals/current-sociology/sociologist-of-the-month/sotm-january-2024

[3] https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Introduction_to_Sociology_%28Lumen%29/12:_Module_9-_Gender_Sex_and_Sexuality/12.08:_Introduction_to_Theories_of_Gender_and_Sex

[4] https://oxfordre.com/education/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-72

[5] https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-sociology/sociology-of-gender/88ABEF51AEDFC9BFE47231BFADCA758E

[6] https://journals.sagepub.com/home/GAS

[7] https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-introductiontosociology/chapter/theoretical-perspectives-on-gender/

[8] https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-gender-gap-report-2023/

Gender Based Violence (GBV) and Policy Response (Nepal)

 Gender Based Violence (GBV) and Policy Response (Nepal) 

Unit VI: Gender Based Violence (GBV) and Policy Response (Nepal) 

• Sociological approach to understand violence against women

• GBV in Nepal

• Policy response

Required readings

Toffanin, Angela Maria (2012) "Research on violence against women: a sociological perspective,"

Interdisciplinary Journal of Family Studies, vol. 17(1), pp. 15-30.

OPM and CoM (2012) A Study on Gender-Based Violence Conducted in Selected Rural Districts of

Nepal, Executive Summary, Kathmandu: Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers,

pp. VI-XXI.

Saathi, The Asia Foundation, and DFID (2010) Nepal: Preliminary Mapping of Gender Based Violence,

Kathmandu: Saathi, pp. 1-21.

Policy response

Nepal Law Commission (2009) Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act, 2066 (2009),

Kathmandu.

Nepal Law Commission (2007) Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2064

(2007), Kathmandu.

OPM and CoM (2012), Ending Gender Based Violence and Gender Empowerment: National Strategy

and Action Plan, 2012, Kathmandu: Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (text in

Nepali).

Additional reading

MoHP, New ERA, and ICF International Inc. (2012) Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2011.

Kathmandu, Nepal: Ministry of Health and Population, New ERA, and ICF International,

Calverton, Maryland, Chapter 14.

### Unit VI: **Gender-Based Violence (GBV) and Policy Response (Nepal)**

This unit focuses on the sociological understanding of violence against women, the specific situation of GBV in Nepal, and the policy measures taken to address it. Understanding GBV through a sociological lens helps identify the structural and cultural factors that perpetuate such violence.

#### 1. **Sociological Approach to Understanding Violence Against Women**

   - **Violence against women** is a sociological issue rooted in power dynamics, gender inequality, and patriarchal norms. Sociological perspectives help us see how social structures, cultural norms, and institutional practices condone or challenge GBV.

   - **Angela Maria Toffanin** (2012) emphasizes that violence against women is often normalized through cultural and social practices that reinforce male dominance and female subordination. This violence manifests in various forms, including physical, sexual, psychological, and economic abuse, and it intersects with other social categories such as class, caste, ethnicity, and geography.

   - A sociological approach looks at how violence is sustained not just at the interpersonal level but through larger societal forces, including media, legal systems, and economic policies, which may perpetuate gender inequalities.

#### 2. **GBV in Nepal**

   - In Nepal, **Gender-Based Violence** is a pervasive issue, deeply rooted in traditional norms and values that favor male dominance. Women in Nepal face various forms of violence, such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, trafficking, and dowry-related violence.

   - The **Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers' (OPM and CoM) 2012 report** on GBV in rural districts highlights that GBV is often underreported, especially in rural areas, due to fear, shame, and lack of access to justice. It identifies factors such as poverty, lack of education, and social isolation as exacerbating the issue of GBV.

   - **Saathi, The Asia Foundation, and DFID’s (2010) report** provides a preliminary mapping of GBV in Nepal, identifying critical gaps in the legal and social support systems for victims. It points out the importance of community-based interventions and the role of civil society in raising awareness and providing support services.

#### 3. **Policy Response**

   - Nepal has implemented several legislative and policy frameworks aimed at curbing GBV:

     - **The Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act, 2066 (2009)** provides legal recourse for victims of domestic violence and criminalizes acts of violence within households. This law aims to protect women and children from domestic abuse, although enforcement remains a challenge.

     - **The Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2064 (2007)** addresses the growing issue of human trafficking, particularly women and children trafficked for labor and sexual exploitation. The law outlines severe penalties for traffickers but faces limitations in terms of implementation, especially in rural areas.

     - The **National Strategy and Action Plan (2012)** outlines the government’s strategy for addressing GBV. It emphasizes gender empowerment and seeks to involve multiple stakeholders, including governmental bodies, civil society, and international organizations, to ensure a coordinated response to GBV.

   - Despite these legislative measures, the challenge lies in effective enforcement, particularly in rural areas where traditional patriarchal attitudes are deeply entrenched. Awareness programs, capacity-building for law enforcement, and the establishment of support systems like shelters and hotlines for victims are crucial to making these policies effective.

#### **Additional Reading**

   - The **Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2011** (Chapter 14) provides statistical insights into the prevalence of GBV in Nepal. It highlights the high rates of domestic violence, sexual violence, and child marriage, underscoring the need for more robust policy interventions and community awareness programs.

---

### Key Takeaways:

- **Sociological Perspectives on GBV**: Gender-based violence is not an isolated act of individual pathology but a social issue shaped by broader cultural, structural, and institutional forces. Understanding these forces is key to addressing GBV effectively.

- **GBV in Nepal**: The problem of GBV in Nepal is widespread, with rural women being particularly vulnerable due to traditional gender norms, poverty, and lack of education. Reports and studies underscore the need for comprehensive interventions.

- **Policy Response**: Nepal has taken legislative steps to address GBV, but gaps in enforcement, cultural resistance, and lack of resources remain major hurdles. The success of these laws depends on improving legal literacy, access to justice, and support for survivors.

This unit helps students critically analyze the social dimensions of GBV and evaluate the effectiveness of policy responses, particularly in the Nepalese context.

Here are 10 potential exam questions covering key topics from the **Sociology of Gender** course. These questions address important conceptual, theoretical, and practical issues related to gender and feminist theory, particularly in the context of Nepal.

### 1. **Social Construction of Gender**

   - How do sociologists differentiate between sex and gender, and how is gender socially constructed in everyday life?

   - Discuss Judith Lorber’s concept of “doing gender” and how it relates to gender as a routine accomplishment in social interactions.

   - Explain the gender division of labor and how it reflects the social construction of sex roles in society.

### 2. **Feminist Theories**

   - Critically analyze Simone de Beauvoir’s contribution to **Liberal Feminism** with reference to her work *The Second Sex*. How does she explain women’s subordination through the notion of "the other"?

   - Examine Maria Mies’ **Socialist Feminism** and her argument on the social origins of the sexual division of labor. How does this perspective challenge capitalist patriarchy?

   - Discuss the central themes of **Third-wave Feminism** as articulated by Chandra Talpade Mohanty in “Under Western Eyes Revisited.” How does Mohanty critique Western feminist approaches to global struggles?

   - How does **Radical Feminism** explain women’s subordination through the lens of sexual politics? Refer to Kate Millett’s *Sexual Politics* in your response.

### 3. **Patriarchy and Beyond**

   - Compare and contrast the different feminist interpretations of patriarchy. How do Marxist, Radical, and Socialist feminists conceptualize patriarchy differently?

   - Drawing on Deniz Kandiyoti’s concept of "bargaining with patriarchy," explain how women negotiate their roles and rights within patriarchal structures in everyday life, especially in the context of household dynamics.

### 4. **Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment**

   - How do Pierre Bourdieu, Michel Foucault, and Jean Baudrillard conceptualize power? Discuss the relevance of their theories to understanding gendered power dynamics.

   - Critically assess feminist interpretations of power, focusing on the notion of empowerment. How does Srilatha Batliwala’s critique of empowerment challenge traditional development frameworks?

### 5. **Gender-Based Violence and Policy Response (Nepal)**

   - Discuss the sociological approach to understanding violence against women, focusing on structural and cultural explanations. What are the main drivers of GBV in Nepal, according to recent studies?

   - Evaluate the effectiveness of Nepal’s policy responses to gender-based violence, such as the Domestic Violence Act (2009) and the Human Trafficking Act (2007). What challenges remain in implementing these policies at the local level?

These questions should help you engage critically with the course content and prepare for your upcoming Sociology of Gender examination.

Here are 10 comprehensive questions based on the **Sociology of Gender** course content. These questions are designed to help you prepare for your Master's examination:

### 1. **Social Construction of Gender**

   - How is gender socially constructed, and in what ways does it differ from biological sex? Draw on the work of William Little, Ron McGivern, and Judith Lorber in your response.

### 2. **Gender as Routine Accomplishment**

   - Critically analyze West and Zimmerman’s concept of “doing gender.” How does this theory explain the role of everyday interactions in reinforcing gender roles?

### 3. **Gender Division of Labour**

   - Explain the historical and sociological reasons behind the gender division of labor. How do sex roles contribute to this division, and what are its implications for gender inequality?

### 4. **Liberal and Socialist Feminism**

   - Compare and contrast **Liberal Feminism** (as represented by Simone de Beauvoir) and **Socialist Feminism** (as represented by Maria Mies). How do these perspectives explain women’s subordination and their paths to liberation?

### 5. **Third-Wave and Radical Feminism**

   - How does **Third-Wave Feminism**, as explained by Chandra Talpade Mohanty, differ from earlier waves of feminism? Additionally, discuss **Radical Feminism** with reference to Kate Millett’s theory of sexual politics.

### 6. **Capitalist Patriarchy**

   - Discuss Zillah Eisenstein’s theory of **capitalist patriarchy**. How does the intersection of capitalism and patriarchy affect gender relations in both the workplace and the home?

### 7. **Bargaining with Patriarchy**

   - Explain Deniz Kandiyoti’s concept of **bargaining with patriarchy**. How do women navigate and negotiate their rights within patriarchal structures, especially in developing countries like Nepal?

### 8. **Power and Empowerment**

   - Compare the sociological theories of power as conceptualized by Pierre Bourdieu, Michel Foucault, and Jean Baudrillard. How do these theories apply to gender relations and feminist debates on power and empowerment?

### 9. **Feminist Methodology**

   - What are the key critiques feminist scholars have of positivism, and how do these critiques inform the development of **feminist methodology**? Discuss the importance of reflexivity and social change in feminist research.

### 10. **Gender-Based Violence and Policy Response in Nepal**

   - Provide an analysis of the sociological approach to understanding **gender-based violence (GBV)** in Nepal. How effective are Nepal’s legal and policy frameworks, such as the **Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act, 2009**, in addressing GBV? What challenges remain in enforcement?

These questions encompass major themes from the course, ensuring a broad coverage of topics for your exam preparation.

Social Construction of Gender

 Social Construction of Gender

Unit I:Social Construction of Gender

• Sex, and social construction of gender

• Gender as routine accomplishment in everyday interaction

• Gender as social structure

• Sex roles and gender division of labour

Required readings

Little, William and Ron McGivern (2013) "The difference between sex and gender,"

Introduction to Sociology – 1st Canadian Edition, British Columbia: OpenStax College,

Chapter 12.

West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987) "Doing gender," Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151.

Lorber, Judith (1994) " 'Night to his day': the social construction of gender," Paradoxes or

Gender, Yale University Press pp. 13-36.

Marini, Margaret Mooney (1990) "Sex and gender: what do we know?" Sociological Forum, vol.

5(1), pp. 95-120.

Unit I on the **Social Construction of Gender** explores how gender is shaped, maintained, and experienced through social interactions and societal structures. Let’s go over the key topics and readings in this unit:

### 1. **Sex and the Social Construction of Gender**

   - **Sex** refers to biological differences (e.g., chromosomes, hormones, reproductive organs) that categorize humans as male or female.

   - **Gender**, in contrast, is socially constructed, meaning that the expectations, behaviors, and roles associated with being male or female are created by society rather than dictated by biology.

   - The required reading by **William Little and Ron McGivern** in *Introduction to Sociology* explains this distinction between sex and gender. The chapter delves into how societies have different cultural expectations for people based on their gender and how these expectations shape identity and social roles.

### 2. **Gender as Routine Accomplishment in Everyday Interaction**

   - The idea that gender is something we "do" rather than something we inherently "are" is captured in the work of **West and Zimmerman** (1987) in their paper "Doing Gender."

   - According to them, gender is not simply a personal identity but a routine accomplishment that individuals perform in everyday social interactions. This performance is guided by societal norms and expectations about what is considered masculine or feminine.

   - For example, in conversation, physical appearance, or work settings, people adjust their behavior to align with their society’s gender expectations, even if unconsciously.

   - This reading emphasizes that gender is a constant process, not a fixed state.

### 3. **Gender as Social Structure**

   - **Judith Lorber’s** (1994) essay “Night to His Day” in *Paradoxes of Gender* presents the idea that gender is a fundamental social structure that organizes nearly all areas of social life.

   - Lorber explains that from birth, individuals are classified into gender categories (male/female) that come with specific roles, rights, and duties. These classifications then influence how they are treated, what opportunities are available, and how they perceive themselves.

   - By viewing gender as a social structure, we can see how it shapes not only individual identities but also institutions like family, education, and the economy.

### 4. **Sex Roles and Gender Division of Labor**

   - This topic addresses how societies assign different roles to individuals based on their sex, often leading to a gender division of labor. This means men and women are expected to perform different tasks and fulfill different responsibilities in both domestic and professional settings.

   - **Marini’s** (1990) paper "Sex and Gender: What Do We Know?" explores the concept of sex roles and examines how these roles are socially constructed to justify the gendered division of labor. Marini highlights how these sex roles have historically placed men in the public sphere (e.g., paid labor) and women in the private sphere (e.g., household work).

   - This division reinforces traditional gender norms and contributes to the persistence of gender inequality in society.

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### Key Takeaways:

- **Social Construction of Gender**: Gender is not an inherent biological trait but a set of socially created norms and expectations that individuals learn and perform.

- **Doing Gender**: Gender is continuously enacted through daily behaviors and interactions, shaping how individuals conform to or resist societal norms.

- **Gender as Social Structure**: Gender is embedded in societal institutions and affects every aspect of life, including work, family, and politics.

- **Gender Division of Labor**: Societal norms assign different roles to men and women, often reinforcing inequality by relegating women to unpaid or undervalued labor.

These readings provide a foundational understanding of how sociologists analyze gender not as a static identity but as a dynamic and socially constructed category that influences all aspects of life.

Sociology of Gender outline

 Sociology of Gender outline

The course objectives for the Sociology of Gender outline a comprehensive approach to understanding gender relations, both conceptually and practically. Here’s a breakdown of these objectives and what they aim to equip you with:

### 1. **Basic Knowledge on Gender and Feminism**

   - The course provides foundational knowledge about **gender as a social construct** and introduces you to key **feminist theories**. 

   - This involves an exploration of how gender roles are shaped by society and culture rather than biology, and how these roles influence various dimensions of life—such as power, labor, and identity.

### 2. **Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Relations**

   - By engaging with **feminist theories**, you will learn to analyze gender relations from a sociological standpoint. The course likely covers different feminist approaches (such as liberal, radical, and intersectional feminism), helping you understand the complexities of gender inequality.

   - These theories give you the tools to critically analyze social structures, norms, and practices that perpetuate gender differences and hierarchies.

### 3. **Analyzing Gender Relations in Nepalese Society**

   - A unique aspect of this course is its focus on **gender relations in Nepal**, equipping you with the perspectives needed to analyze local gender dynamics. 

   - You will explore how societal factors specific to Nepal, such as cultural traditions, economic development, and political structures, shape gender roles and relations.

   - As a sociologist or development practitioner, this will be crucial in addressing gender-based issues within the context of Nepalese society.

### 4. **Debates on Patriarchy and the Bargaining Approach**

   - The course delves into discussions on **patriarchy**, a key structure of male dominance that influences social institutions.

   - The **bargaining approach** (often associated with Amartya Sen and Bina Agarwal) looks at how women "bargain" within unequal systems of power to improve their position and autonomy. This perspective helps explain how women navigate patriarchal systems to secure better outcomes, despite structural disadvantages.

### 5. **Feminist Methodology**

   - You will learn about **feminist methodology**, which emphasizes how research on gender must be grounded in ethical, reflexive, and non-exploitative practices.

   - Feminist methodologies prioritize the voices and experiences of women and other marginalized groups, often challenging traditional, male-centric research frameworks.

### 6. **Gender-Based Violence in Nepal**

   - The course takes a critical look at **gender-based violence (GBV)**, with Nepal as a case study. This includes understanding the causes, forms, and consequences of GBV, as well as the socio-cultural and legal frameworks that either perpetuate or address it.

   - This section equips you with knowledge about how patriarchy, economic inequalities, and social norms contribute to gender-based violence, and how interventions can be developed to combat it.

### Course Goals for Development Practitioners and Sociologists

   - As a student, this course prepares you for real-world applications, particularly in development and policy-making sectors. You’ll be equipped to contribute to gender-sensitive development practices, advocate for women’s rights, and address gender disparities at both local and national levels in Nepal.

This course not only helps you grasp global gender theories but also allows you to contextualize them in Nepal’s unique social landscape, which will be essential in addressing gender inequality in practical ways.

Sociology of Gender

 Sociology of Gender

The Sociology of Gender is a key area within the field of sociology that explores how societies construct gender roles and how these roles shape individual identities, relationships, institutions, and power structures. Let me give you a comprehensive overview of key concepts related to the Sociology of Gender that may come up in your exam:

### 1. **Gender vs. Sex**

   - **Sex** refers to biological differences between males and females, such as reproductive organs, chromosomes, and hormones.

   - **Gender**, on the other hand, is a social construct that refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, and expectations that societies consider appropriate for men and women.

   - Sociologists emphasize that gender is not innate but learned through socialization and varies across cultures and historical periods.

### 2. **Gender Socialization**

   - Gender socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, norms, and behaviors that society considers appropriate for their gender.

   - Socialization occurs through agents such as family, schools, peers, and media. For example, parents might encourage boys to play with trucks and girls with dolls, reinforcing traditional gender roles.

   - This process leads to the perpetuation of gender norms, which can restrict individual freedom by assigning specific roles based on one's gender.

### 3. **Patriarchy and Gender Inequality**

   - **Patriarchy** refers to a social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control over property.

   - Feminist sociologists argue that patriarchy is a root cause of gender inequality, as it privileges men over women in both public and private spheres.

   - Patriarchal norms can manifest in various areas, such as wage gaps, underrepresentation of women in leadership, and domestic violence.

   

### 4. **Feminist Theories**

   Feminist theory is a broad category of theories that analyze the sources and consequences of gender inequality. There are several branches of feminist theory:

   - **Liberal Feminism** focuses on achieving gender equality through political and legal reform. It emphasizes equal opportunities and rights for men and women.

   - **Radical Feminism** sees patriarchy as a fundamental form of oppression and argues for a radical reorganization of society to eliminate male dominance.

   - **Intersectional Feminism** (coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw) emphasizes that gender inequality cannot be fully understood without considering other intersecting social categories such as race, class, and sexuality. It acknowledges that women’s experiences of oppression differ based on their social location.

### 5. **Gender and Power**

   - Sociologists view gender as a central organizing principle of power relations. Gendered power dynamics are embedded in institutions like the family, workplace, government, and education.

   - In many societies, men are often granted more authority and decision-making power than women. This unequal distribution of power reinforces social hierarchies and perpetuates gender inequality.

### 6. **Gender Performativity (Judith Butler)**

   - Judith Butler's theory of **gender performativity** suggests that gender is not something one is, but something one does. Gender is performed through repetitive acts, gestures, language, and behaviors.

   - Butler argues that these performances are socially scripted and are often mistaken for natural expressions of gender identity. By "performing" gender, individuals conform to societal expectations of masculinity or femininity.

   - However, these performances are not fixed, and individuals can challenge and subvert them by enacting different gender behaviors.

### 7. **Masculinity Studies**

   - The study of masculinity explores how the concept of masculinity is constructed and how it varies across cultures, historical periods, and social contexts.

   - Traditional notions of masculinity often emphasize strength, dominance, rationality, and emotional restraint. However, scholars in masculinity studies argue that these norms can be harmful, not just to women but also to men, who are pressured to conform to narrow ideals.

   - Researchers in this field examine multiple masculinities, acknowledging that different types of masculinity exist depending on class, race, ethnicity, and sexuality.

### 8. **Queer Theory**

   - Queer theory challenges fixed and binary categories of gender and sexuality, arguing that identities are fluid, complex, and socially constructed.

   - It criticizes the heteronormativity that privileges heterosexuality as the default or "normal" sexual orientation and explores how sexual identities that deviate from this norm are marginalized.

   - Queer theorists push for a more inclusive understanding of gender and sexuality that goes beyond traditional categories like male/female or gay/straight.

### 9. **Gender and Work**

   - The gender division of labor refers to the ways in which work is divided between men and women. Traditionally, men have been associated with paid labor in the public sphere, while women have been associated with unpaid domestic work in the private sphere.

   - **Occupational segregation** is a key concept in this area, which refers to the concentration of men and women in different types of jobs. "Glass ceiling" and "glass escalator" are terms used to describe how women face barriers in advancing to leadership roles, while men often benefit from quicker promotions in female-dominated fields.

   - The **gender pay gap** is another issue that persists in many societies, with women often earning less than men for the same work.

### 10. **Gender and the Family**

   - The family is a primary site of gender socialization, and gender roles within the family have historically been divided along traditional lines, with men as breadwinners and women as caretakers.

   - However, modern family structures are increasingly diverse, with more dual-income households, single-parent families, and LGBTQ+ families challenging traditional gender roles.

   - Feminist scholars critique how traditional family structures perpetuate gender inequality by expecting women to perform the bulk of unpaid domestic and caregiving labor, even when they are also part of the paid workforce.

### 11. **Gender and Media**

   - Media plays a significant role in shaping and reinforcing gender norms. Men and women are often portrayed in stereotypical ways, with men depicted as strong, dominant, and assertive, and women as passive, emotional, and concerned with appearance.

   - The underrepresentation of women and the objectification of their bodies in the media perpetuate harmful gender norms and contribute to societal expectations around beauty, behavior, and worth.

### 12. **Global Perspectives on Gender**

   - Gender inequality is a global issue, but it takes different forms in different cultural and social contexts.

   - In some parts of the world, women face extreme forms of gender-based violence, discrimination in education and employment, and restrictions on reproductive rights.

   - International organizations like the United Nations focus on gender equality as part of their global development goals, with efforts aimed at increasing women’s political representation, economic opportunities, and access to education and healthcare.

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If you need more details on specific theories, case studies, or any other aspects of the Sociology of Gender, feel free to ask! This comprehensive understanding should help you approach essay questions or thematic analysis in your exam.