Objectives: The World-System Perspective

 Objectives: The World-System Perspective

The objectives of The World-System Perspective course are the following:

A. Learn to think in large scale and long run and to think successively beyond the apparent and

under the surface

B. Learn the scale and depth of world/global-scale social change that has been taking place for

at least last 500 years which, according to accepted wisdom, is when capitalism started to

evolve.

C. Learn what the evolution of capitalism has implied for the world and for the different

regions, states and peoples in the core and the periphery.

D. Learn about the variant formulations and critiques of the world system, some of which

undercut the very notion of capitalism and the notion that capitalism originated in Europe.

E. Learn how the world-system perspective can be utilized to comprehend contemporary society

and life in Nepal.

The objectives outlined in your course provide a structured roadmap for understanding the World-System Perspective, its historical context, and its implications for both global and local societies. Here’s an analysis of each objective and how it integrates with the World-System Perspective.

### A. Learn to Think in Large Scale and Long Run, and to Think Successively Beyond the Apparent and Under the Surface

One of the core goals of the World-System Perspective is to **shift the scale of sociological thinking**. Instead of focusing on short-term, localized issues, the framework encourages looking at broader, long-term historical processes that shape global societies. This approach is particularly useful for understanding capitalism, which is seen not just as an economic system but as a **historical process** that has evolved over centuries.

- **Large-scale thinking** means understanding that no society or economy operates in isolation; rather, they are part of a global network of interdependent nations and regions.

  

- **Long-run thinking** implies recognizing that many of the issues faced by contemporary societies, such as inequality or underdevelopment, are products of centuries-long processes rooted in the global expansion of capitalism.

- **Beyond the apparent** refers to understanding that visible social, economic, and political phenomena are often shaped by underlying structures, such as the global division of labor between core and peripheral nations. For instance, the wealth of developed nations is intricately linked to the historical exploitation of labor and resources from less developed regions, which may not be immediately apparent.

This objective sets the foundation for a **historical, global, and structural mode of analysis**, which is essential for comprehending the deep-rooted causes of inequality and social change.

### B. Learn the Scale and Depth of World/Global-Scale Social Change Over the Last 500 Years

According to the World-System Perspective, the last 500 years, beginning around the 16th century, mark the **formation and expansion of the capitalist world-economy**. During this period, European powers began to establish colonial empires, laying the groundwork for modern capitalism. This system brought about profound social changes, such as:

- The development of **global trade networks**, which linked Europe to Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

- The establishment of a **global division of labor**, where different regions of the world specialized in particular forms of production—core regions focused on industrial production, while peripheral regions provided raw materials and cheap labor.

- The rise of **colonialism and imperialism**, which were instrumental in transferring wealth from the periphery to the core.

This objective encourages you to study the social, economic, and political changes that have occurred on a global scale over the past half-millennium, highlighting the **interconnectedness of global history**. It also involves understanding how capitalism has continually reshaped societies, leading to new forms of inequality, labor exploitation, and wealth concentration.

### C. Learn What the Evolution of Capitalism Has Implied for the World and for Different Regions, States, and Peoples in the Core and the Periphery

The **core-periphery** dynamic is central to the World-System Perspective. The evolution of capitalism has had vastly different implications for the core (wealthier, developed nations) and the periphery (poorer, underdeveloped regions).

- In the **core**, capitalism has brought wealth, industrialization, and technological advances. These nations have benefited from their ability to extract resources and labor from the periphery, allowing them to amass capital and build strong economies.

  

- In contrast, the **periphery** has suffered from the exploitative nature of the global capitalist system. Peripheral countries often specialize in low-value goods, such as raw materials or cheap labor, which leaves them vulnerable to economic crises and dependent on the core for investment, technology, and markets.

The semi-periphery, an intermediate category, serves as a **buffer zone**, where countries experience both exploitation and development. Over time, some semi-peripheral nations may move closer to the core, while others may fall back into peripheral status.

This objective requires an understanding of how **global capitalism reproduces inequality** across regions and peoples, and how the core-periphery dynamic is perpetuated through trade, finance, and political influence. For example, many developing countries remain stuck in a cycle of debt, relying on core countries and international institutions like the IMF and World Bank, which often impose conditions that perpetuate dependency.

### D. Learn About the Variant Formulations and Critiques of the World-System

The World-System Perspective has been influential but is not without its critiques and alternative interpretations. This objective encourages you to engage with **different perspectives** on global capitalism, some of which challenge the very premises of Wallerstein's theory.

- Some scholars argue that **capitalism did not originate in Europe**. Instead, they point to non-European regions like China and India as having developed advanced trade and economic systems long before Europe’s rise. This view challenges the Eurocentrism that is sometimes implicit in the World-System Perspective.

  

- **Postcolonial and decolonial scholars** critique the idea that capitalism is a monolithic, all-encompassing system, arguing instead for a more nuanced understanding of local economies and social relations. They emphasize that there are diverse forms of economic organization that resist or exist outside the logic of capitalism.

- Other critiques focus on the **agency of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations**, arguing that Wallerstein’s framework downplays the capacity of these regions to resist or transform the world-system. For instance, anti-colonial movements, labor strikes, and alternative economic practices offer examples of how marginalized groups challenge global capitalism.

This objective asks you to explore **alternative formulations** that may either complement or contest the World-System Perspective. It also emphasizes the importance of understanding multiple viewpoints to develop a more nuanced understanding of global capitalism.

### E. Learn How the World-System Perspective Can Be Utilized to Comprehend Contemporary Society and Life in Nepal

Applying the World-System Perspective to Nepal requires recognizing the country’s position within the **global capitalist system**. Nepal, as part of the global periphery, faces many of the challenges identified by the World-System Perspective, such as:

- **Economic dependency**: Nepal relies heavily on remittances from migrant workers abroad, who often work in core or semi-peripheral nations like the Gulf States, India, or Malaysia. This creates a situation where Nepal's economy is dependent on the global labor market.

  

- **Underdevelopment**: Nepal’s economy is primarily agricultural, with limited industrialization, making it vulnerable to global market fluctuations and reliant on external aid and investment from core countries or international organizations.

- **Global inequalities**: Nepal faces challenges in achieving sustainable development due to the legacy of colonialism, international trade imbalances, and the influence of multinational corporations and foreign aid agencies, which often prioritize their own interests over those of local populations.

Understanding Nepal through the lens of the World-System Perspective allows you to see how global capitalism shapes the country’s economic policies, social inequalities, and development prospects. It also provides a framework for analyzing the potential for change—whether through local development initiatives, participation in global markets, or resistance to global economic forces.

This objective emphasizes the **practical application** of the World-System Perspective to contemporary social issues in Nepal, encouraging you to critically engage with how global capitalism influences daily life, economic policies, and long-term development in your own context.

### Conclusion

The objectives of your course outline a comprehensive journey through the **historical development of capitalism** and its global ramifications. By thinking in large-scale and long-term processes, you will learn to go beyond surface-level phenomena to uncover the deeper structures of global inequality. Studying the evolution of capitalism and its impact on core and peripheral regions will help you understand the unequal global distribution of wealth and power, while engaging with critiques of the World-System Perspective will enable you to develop a well-rounded understanding of global capitalism. Finally, applying this framework to contemporary Nepal will allow you to explore the real-world implications of these theoretical insights.

In sum, these objectives aim to cultivate a **critical, historical, and global perspective** that will not only help you excel in your studies but also deepen your understanding of the world around you.

The World-System Perspective

 The World-System Perspective

The World-System Perspective, developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein in the 1970s, is a comprehensive and influential framework within sociology that seeks to understand the historical development of capitalism and its global dynamics. This approach situates societies within the broader context of a global economic system rather than examining them as isolated entities. In doing so, it offers a holistic understanding of the relationships between nations, regions, and social structures, focusing on inequalities, dependencies, and the power dynamics that characterize the world economy. 

### Historical Context and Theoretical Foundations

To grasp the World-System Perspective, it is essential to consider its intellectual roots. Wallerstein's work was influenced by various theoretical traditions, including **Marxism**, **dependency theory**, and **world history**. He sought to address what he perceived as the limitations of traditional sociological approaches, particularly those that focused solely on national development or modernization.

Wallerstein's primary critique of modernization theory was its assumption that societies evolve through similar stages of development, from "traditional" to "modern." Modernization theory generally assumed that underdeveloped countries could follow the same path as developed nations if they adopted Western values, technologies, and institutions. Wallerstein, however, argued that such a view ignored the global inequalities and exploitative relationships that shape the modern world. In his view, no society develops in isolation; rather, they exist within a world-economic system that emerged in the 16th century with the expansion of European colonialism and capitalism.

### Key Concepts of the World-System Perspective

The World-System Perspective introduces several key concepts to explain the functioning of the global economy and its impact on different regions:

#### 1. **Core, Semi-Periphery, and Periphery**

Wallerstein's world-system is divided into three main categories of nations or regions: the core, the semi-periphery, and the periphery. These categories represent different roles in the global economy, shaped by their relationships to production, capital, and labor exploitation.

- **Core Countries**: These nations dominate the world economy and control most of the capital, technology, and resources. They tend to have strong, diversified economies with advanced industrial sectors. Core countries also dominate global political and economic institutions. Historically, Western European nations, and later the United States, have occupied the core. Core countries benefit from their ability to exploit labor and resources from peripheral countries.

- **Periphery Countries**: These nations are often former colonies or underdeveloped regions that provide raw materials, agricultural products, and cheap labor to the core. The economies of peripheral countries tend to be less diversified, often relying on a few primary exports. Peripheral nations are subjected to exploitation by the core, leading to poverty, dependency, and underdevelopment. Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Asia are frequently cited as peripheral regions.

- **Semi-Periphery Countries**: These nations occupy an intermediate position between the core and periphery. They have characteristics of both core and peripheral regions, often undergoing industrialization and economic growth but still dependent on stronger core nations. Semi-peripheral countries can sometimes shift into core status or slip back into the periphery depending on economic and political changes. Examples of semi-peripheral countries include Brazil, India, and South Korea.

This hierarchical structure allows Wallerstein to explain how the global division of labor and unequal exchange relationships sustain inequality across the world.

#### 2. **The Capitalist World-Economy**

The World-System Perspective is grounded in the idea of a **capitalist world-economy** that has existed since the 16th century. According to Wallerstein, this global economy is characterized by the pursuit of profit and the constant expansion of capital. Unlike previous world-empires (such as the Roman or Chinese empires) that were based on territorial conquest and tribute, the capitalist world-economy is based on market relationships, where goods, services, and labor are exchanged for profit.

Within this system, wealth is accumulated by those in the core, while poverty is reproduced in the periphery. Capitalism, according to Wallerstein, is a fundamentally unequal system, as it depends on the exploitation of labor, especially in peripheral regions where wages are kept low and working conditions are poor. This global division of labor ensures that core nations remain dominant and that the benefits of economic growth are disproportionately concentrated in wealthy countries.

#### 3. **Hegemony and Cycles of Change**

Another important concept in the World-System Perspective is **hegemony**, or the dominance of one core nation (or group of nations) over others within the system. Hegemony in the world-system is not just military or political dominance but includes economic, cultural, and ideological leadership. Throughout history, different nations have held hegemonic positions, shaping global trade, politics, and culture.

Wallerstein identified several periods of hegemony in the world-system. For instance, during the 16th century, **Spain** was a dominant power, largely through its colonial conquests and resource extraction in the Americas. In the 19th century, **Britain** became the hegemonic power through its industrial revolution, colonial empire, and global trade networks. In the 20th century, the **United States** assumed the position of global hegemon, particularly after World War II, when it emerged as a leader in international institutions like the United Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund.

However, hegemony is not permanent. Wallerstein argued that the world-system operates in **cycles**, with periods of economic expansion followed by stagnation or crisis. During times of crisis, hegemons may decline, and new powers may emerge. For instance, the economic and political rise of China in recent decades has been viewed as a potential challenge to U.S. dominance in the world-system.

#### 4. **The Longue Durée and Historical Change**

A distinctive feature of the World-System Perspective is its focus on the **longue durée**, or the long-term historical processes that shape the world. Rather than focusing on short-term events or individual actions, Wallerstein was concerned with understanding how the capitalist world-system has developed over centuries.

In this framework, historical change is not random but shaped by the structural dynamics of the world-system. For example, technological innovations, shifts in global trade patterns, and changes in political institutions are all understood in relation to the broader processes of capitalism and global inequality. Wars, revolutions, and crises are not seen as isolated events but as part of the ongoing restructuring of the world-system.

### Criticisms of the World-System Perspective

While Wallerstein’s World-System Perspective has been highly influential, it has also faced several criticisms:

1. **Eurocentrism**: Critics argue that the World-System Perspective places too much emphasis on the experiences of Europe and North America, particularly in its historical analysis of capitalism's development. Some have suggested that it underplays the role of non-Western societies and cultures in shaping the world economy.

2. **Economic Determinism**: Another critique is that the World-System Perspective places too much emphasis on economic factors, neglecting the role of political, social, and cultural processes in shaping global relations. Wallerstein’s focus on the capitalist economy has been criticized for downplaying the importance of state power, political institutions, and ideological factors in global change.

3. **Agency**: Some scholars argue that the World-System Perspective does not adequately account for human agency, especially the ability of individuals or groups to resist or challenge the structures of the world-system. For instance, social movements, labor unions, and indigenous struggles often confront global capitalism, but Wallerstein's framework may not fully capture their significance.

4. **Oversimplification**: Wallerstein’s division of the world into core, semi-periphery, and periphery has been seen by some as overly simplistic. In reality, the global economy is more complex, and there are varying degrees of development and interaction that do not fit neatly into these categories.

### Conclusion

The World-System Perspective offers a powerful analytical tool for understanding the global inequalities that define modern capitalism. By focusing on the historical development of the capitalist world-economy and the hierarchical relationships between core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral countries, it challenges traditional notions of development and modernization. Wallerstein’s framework underscores the importance of seeing societies not in isolation but as part of a larger, interconnected global system shaped by inequality, exploitation, and power dynamics.

While the World-System Perspective has its critics, it remains a central theory in sociology and international studies, providing insights into the persistence of global inequality and the structural forces that shape the modern world. As globalization continues to deepen, the relevance of Wallerstein's ideas is likely to endure, prompting further debate and reflection on the dynamics of the world-system.

Let's understand in detail, what is Viagra, a drug that increases sexual performance?

Let's understand in detail, what is Viagra, a drug that increases sexual performance?

The name of Viagra is very famous. Many people know that this drug of Viagra brand increases sexual performance. But few know that it has its own quantity. Which should be used in case of lack of sexual ability only on the advice of the doctor considering the body condition and age.

In this way, cases of death due to eating randomly and regularly are heard from time to time.

What kind of medicine is this?

Viagra is a brand of Sildenafil Citrate drug. which belongs to the group of prostaglandin inhibitors. It temporarily activates the sexual potential of men.

The American Pfizer company invented this medicine in 1998 and named the brand 'Viagra'. Due to the fact that the old medicine released in the beginning and the response in the market was also positive, this medicine gained popularity. And, from that time until today, its demand is increasing. The medicine is famous by the name of Viagra.

In what situation is it used?

As a medicine to increase sexual desire, this medicine cannot be taken as such. Doctors recommend this medicine only to those who have problems with sexual impotence.

Sexual impotence is the inability of the penis to become hard during sexual intercourse or to be unable to maintain it for a long time. Because of this, sex cannot happen even if you want to. If there is such a problem, this medicine works.

How does this medicine work?

When thinking about or wanting to have sex, the brain produces a chemical called nitric oxide. It activates different bio chemicals in the body. Some of these chemicals are gradually destroyed by prostaglandin and five hormones. So after some time the excitement disappears.

This medicine works to block that breaking process. This drug increases the amount of nitric oxide in the body of a person with sexual impotence. And, makes the arteries loose. As a result, blood flow temporarily increases in the penis. As soon as the blood flows, the penis becomes hard. And, sexual ability increases temporarily.

When and how to use this medicine?

Viagra is available in 25 mg to 200 mg. How many milligrams to give depends on the condition of the affected person.

As far as the use of the medicine is concerned, this medicine should be taken 20-25 minutes before sexual intercourse. If a large meal is consumed, it will take some time to show its effect. The dose of this medicine can last for 4 to 5 hours.

But if one medicine doesn't work, don't take another tablet. Sometimes stress or other reasons can cause sexual arousal.

Side-effects

It may cause some temporary side-effects. In which side-effects can be seen such as headache, skin redness, stomach problems, vision problems, nasal congestion, fever and muscle pain.

Viagra stimulates blood vessels in the muscles. In such a situation, the blood flow to the muscles is accelerated.

If you experience symptoms of chest pain, vision problems, breathing problems, swelling of the eyes and face due to its consumption, you should contact your doctor immediately.

Who should not eat?

- Viagra should not be taken even if you have heart problems and are taking nitrate group drugs. It increases the pressure on the heart. If you have to eat it, you should eat it only on the advice of a doctor.

- If a person experiences chest pain with slight exertion and his breathing rate increases, he should not use Viagra.

- If there is a heart attack or a stroke, the use of Viagra can be dangerous.

- Those who take blood pressure medicine and diabetes medicine should not use it either.

- Even if you have a kidney problem, it should not be used without a doctor's advice.

- HIV patients should not use Viagra even if they are taking Ritonavir.

Don't use it randomly

Today, even young, energetic young men use Viagra without a doctor's advice to indulge in sexual activity for a long time, to increase their virility or to be embarrassed in front of their partner.

Long-term use of this drug affects thinking and confidence. Some users are addicted to it. That's why they use it excessively thinking that it is not possible without sex.

Its side-effects can sometimes be very dangerous. Excessive use of it can make a person blind forever. People don't even know this.

Sometimes its use lasts for a long time, which is not good. If stimulation is continued for longer than necessary, it can become a problem.

Interesting history

In 1989, a team of the American pharmaceutical company Pfizer was working on making a drug to treat angina, that is, heart disease. Angina is a condition in which the arteries that supply blood to the heart become narrowed, causing chest pain and shortness of breath.

In this effort, Pfizer created a new ingredient, Sildenafil, and tested it on some men. Sildenafil failed to relieve heart pain in clinical trials. But the effort was not wasted. Most of the men who participated in the trial felt sexually stimulated by this drug. It has been confirmed that it has improved the sex life of many.

In other words, the medicine that Pfizer made for the proper flow of blood in the heart, that medicine worked for the veins of the penis. Then Pfizer started experimenting to solve the problem of sexual impotence.

The company got the patent for this medicine in 1996. On March 27, 1998, the FDA approved a drug called sildenafil for medical use. The brand name of sildenafil is Viagra.

 

What is chemotherapy used in the treatment of cancer?

 What is chemotherapy used in the treatment of cancer?

There are many types of cancer such as breast cancer, lung cancer, uterine cancer, colon cancer. All these cancers have a common cause, the abnormal growth of cells. In this disease, uncontrolled division of cells starts in any part of the body.

Chemotherapy is the most common treatment method used in the treatment of cancer. Chemotherapy is used to destroy cancer cells. Chemotherapy stops cancer cells from spreading. It works by preventing other cells from forming, growing and dividing. Because cancer cells usually grow and divide faster than normal cells.

Therefore, chemotherapy has a greater effect on cancer cells. But the drugs used for chemotherapy are so powerful that sometimes they can even affect healthy cells.

Just as the medicine used in the treatment of bacteria is called antibiotic, the medicine used in the treatment of cancer is called chemotherapy. Chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, CAR T cell therapy and bone marrow transplants are all systemic therapies used in the treatment of cancer.

Which stage cancer patients are given chemotherapy?

Chemotherapy should be given to patients according to the condition, stage and type of cancer. Some need to be given chemo in the initial stage, while some need to be given only in the fourth stage. This therapy is often more necessary in the second, third and fourth stages than in the first stage.

Chemo is given to diagnose some cancers, reduce some and prevent some patients from growing. In the first stage of breast cancer, cancer can be cured by surgery and radiation alone, there is no need to continue giving chemo. Chemo is not necessary even in the early stages of colon cancer. Apart from these two, in some cancers, chemo may be given in the first stage.

How often should chemotherapy be given to cancer patients?

Which cancer is it and what is the condition? Accordingly, the number of chemo may vary. In ovarian cancer, 6 cycles of chemo are enough, in breast cancer, four to eight cycles are given. There may be a decrease in other cancers.

Especially in lung cancer, there is an example of giving chemo for a long time. But generally it may be given from four times throughout life.

Some side-effects of chemotherapy

Cancer is a chronic disease. In this, the cells of the body divide uncontrollably, this process of division is stopped by chemotherapy. Chemo also kills the bad cells that divide uncontrollably, along with the normal cells that develop every day. Hair cells develop daily. Chemo affects it, causing hair loss.

Another thing is that our digestive system, from the mouth to the anus, also develops daily. It also affects it, causing problems such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and constipation. Lack of white and red blood. In addition, there are problems such as dry menstruation in women and lack of sperm in men. These problems are seen because chemo kills new cells.

Medical science has also developed drugs that reduce these side-effects that occur during chemotherapy. So do not be afraid to use this medicine.

How is chemotherapy given?

About 90 percent of chemotherapy is given intravenously. If it is to be given by injection, chemo drugs are given by injection after admission.

It is also given as an oral medicine to some patients. Also, if someone's cancer has spread to the brain, chemotherapy is also given from the back. If someone has skin cancer, it is also given as an ointment.

Things to consider in people receiving chemotherapy

First of all, a person undergoing chemotherapy should pay special attention to their diet. Because what is needed to form new cells in our body is obtained from a healthy and balanced diet. Fresh home-made food should also be eaten with a little more protein. Drink plenty of water.

It is also important for people taking chemo to get enough rest. You should rest for seven to 10 hours daily. It is also good to do light exercise daily. Keep your body active by doing jogging, yoga and light exercise at home.

While undergoing cancer treatment, the immune system is also weak, so there is a higher chance of infection. In this case, special attention should be paid to hygiene, use of masks if you have to avoid crowded places, etc.

After receiving chemotherapy, if a blue stain appears on the body, sores appear, gums or nose bleeds, you should immediately contact the treating doctor.

Other drug treatments for cancer

Targeted therapy: This treatment targets genes or proteins found in cancer cells. Those genes or proteins are needed to develop specific cancer cells.

Immunotherapy: This treatment helps the body's natural defenses to fight cancer. This treatment is used today for some types of cancer.

Hormone therapy: This treatment changes the amount of hormones in the body. Hormones contain chemicals. Hormones are naturally produced in the body. It helps in controlling the activity of certain cells or organs. Hormone levels control many types of cancer Doctors use hormone therapy. This includes some breast and prostate cancers.

Kar-T cell therapy: Kar-T cell is a special treatment method, which has been found to be very effective in blood cancer patients. It is a treatment technique that uses immune cells called 'T', which are present in the patient's body. The 'T' cells in the body, especially in the blood system, are taken out and genetically engineered in the laboratory to recognize cancer and act against it, and then sent into the patient's body, which can kill the cancer.

Bone marrow transplant: Blood cancer that cannot be cured by chemotherapy is treated with bone marrow transplant. Bone marrow transplantation is the process of destroying the unhealthy bone marrow in the body and placing another healthy bone marrow.