Sociology of Gender

 Sociology of Gender

## Sociology of Gender

The sociology of gender is a field that examines how gender identities and roles are constructed, maintained, and challenged within social contexts. It explores the complex interplay between gender, power, culture, and social structures, focusing on the ways in which gender shapes experiences and opportunities in various spheres of life, including work, education, family, and politics.

****Historical Context and Development

The study of gender in sociology has evolved significantly over the past century. Early sociological research often conflated sex (biological differences) with gender (socially constructed roles), leading to a limited understanding of how these concepts interact. However, as feminist movements gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, scholars began to differentiate between sex and gender, recognizing that gender is a social construct influenced by cultural norms and power dynamics.

Research published in *Social Forces* over the last hundred years illustrates this shift. Initially focused on biological determinism, scholarship has increasingly adopted a structural perspective that considers how gender operates across multiple levels—individual, institutional, and societal. This transition has allowed for a more nuanced understanding of how gender intersects with other forms of social stratification such as race, class, and sexuality[1].

****Theoretical Perspectives

Sociologists employ various theoretical frameworks to analyze gender:

- **Functionalism**: This perspective views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability. Functionalists argue that traditional gender roles serve a purpose in maintaining social order. For example, they suggest that men’s roles as breadwinners and women’s roles as caregivers are functional for family stability.

- **Conflict Theory**: Conflict theorists emphasize the power struggles between different groups within society. They argue that gender inequality arises from the dominance of men over women in patriarchal societies. This perspective highlights how economic systems exploit women's labor and perpetuate gender disparities.

- **Symbolic Interactionism**: This micro-level approach focuses on daily interactions and the meanings individuals attach to gender roles. It examines how societal norms shape individual behavior and identity. For instance, it explores how language and symbols reinforce traditional notions of masculinity and femininity[3][7].

Each of these perspectives contributes to a comprehensive understanding of how gender operates within society.

****Intersectionality

A critical development in the sociology of gender is the concept of intersectionality, which recognizes that individuals experience multiple identities simultaneously (e.g., race, class, sexuality) that intersect to create unique experiences of oppression or privilege. This framework encourages researchers to consider how various social categories interact to shape individuals' experiences and access to resources[4].

For instance, Black women may face different challenges than white women due to the compounded effects of racism and sexism. Intersectional analysis has expanded the scope of gender studies by highlighting the importance of context in understanding inequality.

****Gender in Education

The sociology of gender also critically examines educational institutions as sites where gender norms are reinforced or challenged. Research indicates that educational settings often perpetuate traditional gender roles through curricula, teacher-student interactions, and school culture. For example, studies have shown that boys are often encouraged to pursue STEM fields while girls may be steered toward humanities[4].

Moreover, issues such as bullying based on non-conformity to traditional gender roles can lead to significant disparities in educational outcomes for LGBTQ+ students. The field advocates for inclusive practices that recognize diverse identities and promote equity within educational settings.

****Contemporary Issues

In recent years, the sociology of gender has expanded its focus to include contemporary issues such as:

- **Transgender Rights**: Increasing recognition of transgender individuals has prompted sociologists to explore how societal norms around gender binary are being challenged. Research highlights the discrimination faced by transgender individuals in various domains including healthcare, employment, and legal rights.

- **Workplace Inequality**: Despite progress toward equality, women continue to face significant barriers in the workplace, including wage gaps and underrepresentation in leadership positions. Sociologists analyze these disparities through lenses such as organizational culture and labor market dynamics[6].

- **Global Perspectives**: The global dimension of gender studies examines how cultural differences shape experiences of gender inequality around the world. Issues such as reproductive rights, violence against women, and access to education are critical areas of focus for sociologists studying gender on a global scale[8].

In summary, the sociology of gender is a dynamic field that encompasses a wide range of issues related to identity, power dynamics, and social structures. It continues to evolve as new challenges emerge in society regarding equality and representation across different genders. Through various theoretical lenses and intersectional approaches, sociologists aim to understand and address the complexities surrounding gender in contemporary life.

Citations:

[1] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10100580/

[2] https://www.isa-sociology.org/en/publications/isa-journals/current-sociology/sociologist-of-the-month/sotm-january-2024

[3] https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Introduction_to_Sociology_%28Lumen%29/12:_Module_9-_Gender_Sex_and_Sexuality/12.08:_Introduction_to_Theories_of_Gender_and_Sex

[4] https://oxfordre.com/education/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-72

[5] https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-sociology/sociology-of-gender/88ABEF51AEDFC9BFE47231BFADCA758E

[6] https://journals.sagepub.com/home/GAS

[7] https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-introductiontosociology/chapter/theoretical-perspectives-on-gender/

[8] https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-gender-gap-report-2023/

Gender Based Violence (GBV) and Policy Response (Nepal)

 Gender Based Violence (GBV) and Policy Response (Nepal) 

Unit VI: Gender Based Violence (GBV) and Policy Response (Nepal) 

• Sociological approach to understand violence against women

• GBV in Nepal

• Policy response

Required readings

Toffanin, Angela Maria (2012) "Research on violence against women: a sociological perspective,"

Interdisciplinary Journal of Family Studies, vol. 17(1), pp. 15-30.

OPM and CoM (2012) A Study on Gender-Based Violence Conducted in Selected Rural Districts of

Nepal, Executive Summary, Kathmandu: Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers,

pp. VI-XXI.

Saathi, The Asia Foundation, and DFID (2010) Nepal: Preliminary Mapping of Gender Based Violence,

Kathmandu: Saathi, pp. 1-21.

Policy response

Nepal Law Commission (2009) Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act, 2066 (2009),

Kathmandu.

Nepal Law Commission (2007) Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2064

(2007), Kathmandu.

OPM and CoM (2012), Ending Gender Based Violence and Gender Empowerment: National Strategy

and Action Plan, 2012, Kathmandu: Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (text in

Nepali).

Additional reading

MoHP, New ERA, and ICF International Inc. (2012) Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2011.

Kathmandu, Nepal: Ministry of Health and Population, New ERA, and ICF International,

Calverton, Maryland, Chapter 14.

### Unit VI: **Gender-Based Violence (GBV) and Policy Response (Nepal)**

This unit focuses on the sociological understanding of violence against women, the specific situation of GBV in Nepal, and the policy measures taken to address it. Understanding GBV through a sociological lens helps identify the structural and cultural factors that perpetuate such violence.

#### 1. **Sociological Approach to Understanding Violence Against Women**

   - **Violence against women** is a sociological issue rooted in power dynamics, gender inequality, and patriarchal norms. Sociological perspectives help us see how social structures, cultural norms, and institutional practices condone or challenge GBV.

   - **Angela Maria Toffanin** (2012) emphasizes that violence against women is often normalized through cultural and social practices that reinforce male dominance and female subordination. This violence manifests in various forms, including physical, sexual, psychological, and economic abuse, and it intersects with other social categories such as class, caste, ethnicity, and geography.

   - A sociological approach looks at how violence is sustained not just at the interpersonal level but through larger societal forces, including media, legal systems, and economic policies, which may perpetuate gender inequalities.

#### 2. **GBV in Nepal**

   - In Nepal, **Gender-Based Violence** is a pervasive issue, deeply rooted in traditional norms and values that favor male dominance. Women in Nepal face various forms of violence, such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, trafficking, and dowry-related violence.

   - The **Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers' (OPM and CoM) 2012 report** on GBV in rural districts highlights that GBV is often underreported, especially in rural areas, due to fear, shame, and lack of access to justice. It identifies factors such as poverty, lack of education, and social isolation as exacerbating the issue of GBV.

   - **Saathi, The Asia Foundation, and DFID’s (2010) report** provides a preliminary mapping of GBV in Nepal, identifying critical gaps in the legal and social support systems for victims. It points out the importance of community-based interventions and the role of civil society in raising awareness and providing support services.

#### 3. **Policy Response**

   - Nepal has implemented several legislative and policy frameworks aimed at curbing GBV:

     - **The Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act, 2066 (2009)** provides legal recourse for victims of domestic violence and criminalizes acts of violence within households. This law aims to protect women and children from domestic abuse, although enforcement remains a challenge.

     - **The Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act, 2064 (2007)** addresses the growing issue of human trafficking, particularly women and children trafficked for labor and sexual exploitation. The law outlines severe penalties for traffickers but faces limitations in terms of implementation, especially in rural areas.

     - The **National Strategy and Action Plan (2012)** outlines the government’s strategy for addressing GBV. It emphasizes gender empowerment and seeks to involve multiple stakeholders, including governmental bodies, civil society, and international organizations, to ensure a coordinated response to GBV.

   - Despite these legislative measures, the challenge lies in effective enforcement, particularly in rural areas where traditional patriarchal attitudes are deeply entrenched. Awareness programs, capacity-building for law enforcement, and the establishment of support systems like shelters and hotlines for victims are crucial to making these policies effective.

#### **Additional Reading**

   - The **Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2011** (Chapter 14) provides statistical insights into the prevalence of GBV in Nepal. It highlights the high rates of domestic violence, sexual violence, and child marriage, underscoring the need for more robust policy interventions and community awareness programs.

---

### Key Takeaways:

- **Sociological Perspectives on GBV**: Gender-based violence is not an isolated act of individual pathology but a social issue shaped by broader cultural, structural, and institutional forces. Understanding these forces is key to addressing GBV effectively.

- **GBV in Nepal**: The problem of GBV in Nepal is widespread, with rural women being particularly vulnerable due to traditional gender norms, poverty, and lack of education. Reports and studies underscore the need for comprehensive interventions.

- **Policy Response**: Nepal has taken legislative steps to address GBV, but gaps in enforcement, cultural resistance, and lack of resources remain major hurdles. The success of these laws depends on improving legal literacy, access to justice, and support for survivors.

This unit helps students critically analyze the social dimensions of GBV and evaluate the effectiveness of policy responses, particularly in the Nepalese context.

Here are 10 potential exam questions covering key topics from the **Sociology of Gender** course. These questions address important conceptual, theoretical, and practical issues related to gender and feminist theory, particularly in the context of Nepal.

### 1. **Social Construction of Gender**

   - How do sociologists differentiate between sex and gender, and how is gender socially constructed in everyday life?

   - Discuss Judith Lorber’s concept of “doing gender” and how it relates to gender as a routine accomplishment in social interactions.

   - Explain the gender division of labor and how it reflects the social construction of sex roles in society.

### 2. **Feminist Theories**

   - Critically analyze Simone de Beauvoir’s contribution to **Liberal Feminism** with reference to her work *The Second Sex*. How does she explain women’s subordination through the notion of "the other"?

   - Examine Maria Mies’ **Socialist Feminism** and her argument on the social origins of the sexual division of labor. How does this perspective challenge capitalist patriarchy?

   - Discuss the central themes of **Third-wave Feminism** as articulated by Chandra Talpade Mohanty in “Under Western Eyes Revisited.” How does Mohanty critique Western feminist approaches to global struggles?

   - How does **Radical Feminism** explain women’s subordination through the lens of sexual politics? Refer to Kate Millett’s *Sexual Politics* in your response.

### 3. **Patriarchy and Beyond**

   - Compare and contrast the different feminist interpretations of patriarchy. How do Marxist, Radical, and Socialist feminists conceptualize patriarchy differently?

   - Drawing on Deniz Kandiyoti’s concept of "bargaining with patriarchy," explain how women negotiate their roles and rights within patriarchal structures in everyday life, especially in the context of household dynamics.

### 4. **Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment**

   - How do Pierre Bourdieu, Michel Foucault, and Jean Baudrillard conceptualize power? Discuss the relevance of their theories to understanding gendered power dynamics.

   - Critically assess feminist interpretations of power, focusing on the notion of empowerment. How does Srilatha Batliwala’s critique of empowerment challenge traditional development frameworks?

### 5. **Gender-Based Violence and Policy Response (Nepal)**

   - Discuss the sociological approach to understanding violence against women, focusing on structural and cultural explanations. What are the main drivers of GBV in Nepal, according to recent studies?

   - Evaluate the effectiveness of Nepal’s policy responses to gender-based violence, such as the Domestic Violence Act (2009) and the Human Trafficking Act (2007). What challenges remain in implementing these policies at the local level?

These questions should help you engage critically with the course content and prepare for your upcoming Sociology of Gender examination.

Here are 10 comprehensive questions based on the **Sociology of Gender** course content. These questions are designed to help you prepare for your Master's examination:

### 1. **Social Construction of Gender**

   - How is gender socially constructed, and in what ways does it differ from biological sex? Draw on the work of William Little, Ron McGivern, and Judith Lorber in your response.

### 2. **Gender as Routine Accomplishment**

   - Critically analyze West and Zimmerman’s concept of “doing gender.” How does this theory explain the role of everyday interactions in reinforcing gender roles?

### 3. **Gender Division of Labour**

   - Explain the historical and sociological reasons behind the gender division of labor. How do sex roles contribute to this division, and what are its implications for gender inequality?

### 4. **Liberal and Socialist Feminism**

   - Compare and contrast **Liberal Feminism** (as represented by Simone de Beauvoir) and **Socialist Feminism** (as represented by Maria Mies). How do these perspectives explain women’s subordination and their paths to liberation?

### 5. **Third-Wave and Radical Feminism**

   - How does **Third-Wave Feminism**, as explained by Chandra Talpade Mohanty, differ from earlier waves of feminism? Additionally, discuss **Radical Feminism** with reference to Kate Millett’s theory of sexual politics.

### 6. **Capitalist Patriarchy**

   - Discuss Zillah Eisenstein’s theory of **capitalist patriarchy**. How does the intersection of capitalism and patriarchy affect gender relations in both the workplace and the home?

### 7. **Bargaining with Patriarchy**

   - Explain Deniz Kandiyoti’s concept of **bargaining with patriarchy**. How do women navigate and negotiate their rights within patriarchal structures, especially in developing countries like Nepal?

### 8. **Power and Empowerment**

   - Compare the sociological theories of power as conceptualized by Pierre Bourdieu, Michel Foucault, and Jean Baudrillard. How do these theories apply to gender relations and feminist debates on power and empowerment?

### 9. **Feminist Methodology**

   - What are the key critiques feminist scholars have of positivism, and how do these critiques inform the development of **feminist methodology**? Discuss the importance of reflexivity and social change in feminist research.

### 10. **Gender-Based Violence and Policy Response in Nepal**

   - Provide an analysis of the sociological approach to understanding **gender-based violence (GBV)** in Nepal. How effective are Nepal’s legal and policy frameworks, such as the **Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act, 2009**, in addressing GBV? What challenges remain in enforcement?

These questions encompass major themes from the course, ensuring a broad coverage of topics for your exam preparation.

Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment

 Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 

Unit IV: Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 6 hrs

• Sociological understanding on 'power': Bourdieu, Foucault and Baudrillard

• Feminist understanding on power

• Gendered debate on power and empowerment

Required readings

Geèienë, Ingrida (2002) "The notion of power in the theories of Bourdieu, Foucault and

Baudrillard," Sociologija, vol. 2, pp. 116-124.

Allen, Amy (2014) "Feminist perspectives on power," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

(Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/feminist-power/>.

Batliwala, Srilatha (2007) "Taking the power out of empowerment - an experiential account,"

Development in Practice, vol. 17(4), pp. 557-565.

March, Candida, Ines Smyth and Maietrayee Mukhapadhyah (1999) "Women's empowerment

(Longwe) framework," in A Guide to Gender Analysis Framework, Oxford: Oxfam GB, pp.

92-100.

Unit V: Feminist Methodology 8 hrs

• Feminist critique of positivism and the value for reflexivity and social change

• Emerging approaches in feminism-sensitive research

• Double consciousness and feminist standpoint epistemology

Required readings

Naples, Nancy A. (2007) "Feminist methodology." Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Ritzer,

George (ed). Blackwell Publishing, Blackwell Reference Online, 1 September 2010,

available at:

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_chunk_g978

140512433112_ss1-42, last retrieved on 20 June 2015.

Wambui, Jane (2013) An introduction to feminist research, available online at

http://www.researchgate.net/publictopics.PublicPostFileLoader.html?id=54946308d5a3f2e

0038b4698&key=fb9f096d-d0bd-4e24-87b5-61520a3ed3c0.

Harding, Sandra (1993) "Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is 'strong objectivity'? in

Linda Alcoff, Elizabeth Potter (eds.) Feminist Epistemologies, Routledge, pp. 49-82.

Brooks, Abigail (2007) "Feminist standpoint epistemology: building knowledge and

empowerment through women's lived experience," in Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber &

Patricia Lina Leavy (eds.) Feminist Research Practice, Chapter 3, Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications, pp. 53-82.

Unit IV: Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 6 hrs

• Sociological understanding on 'power': Bourdieu, Foucault and Baudrillard

• Feminist understanding on power

• Gendered debate on power and empowerment

Required readings

Geèienë, Ingrida (2002) "The notion of power in the theories of Bourdieu, Foucault and

Baudrillard," Sociologija, vol. 2, pp. 116-124.

Allen, Amy (2014) "Feminist perspectives on power," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

(Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/feminist-power/>.

Batliwala, Srilatha (2007) "Taking the power out of empowerment - an experiential account,"

Development in Practice, vol. 17(4), pp. 557-565.

March, Candida, Ines Smyth and Maietrayee Mukhapadhyah (1999) "Women's empowerment

(Longwe) framework," in A Guide to Gender Analysis Framework, Oxford: Oxfam GB, pp.

92-100.

Unit V: Feminist Methodology 8 hrs

• Feminist critique of positivism and the value for reflexivity and social change

• Emerging approaches in feminism-sensitive research

• Double consciousness and feminist standpoint epistemology

Required readings

Naples, Nancy A. (2007) "Feminist methodology." Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Ritzer,

George (ed). Blackwell Publishing, Blackwell Reference Online, 1 September 2010,

available at:

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_chunk_g978

140512433112_ss1-42, last retrieved on 20 June 2015.

Wambui, Jane (2013) An introduction to feminist research, available online at

http://www.researchgate.net/publictopics.PublicPostFileLoader.html?id=54946308d5a3f2e

0038b4698&key=fb9f096d-d0bd-4e24-87b5-61520a3ed3c0.

Harding, Sandra (1993) "Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is 'strong objectivity'? in

Linda Alcoff, Elizabeth Potter (eds.) Feminist Epistemologies, Routledge, pp. 49-82.

Brooks, Abigail (2007) "Feminist standpoint epistemology: building knowledge and

empowerment through women's lived experience," in Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber &

Patricia Lina Leavy (eds.) Feminist Research Practice, Chapter 3, Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications, pp. 53-82.

### Unit IV: **Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment**

This unit delves into various theoretical frameworks of power, focusing on sociological perspectives from scholars like Bourdieu, Foucault, and Baudrillard, and feminist understandings of power and empowerment.

#### 1. **Sociological Understanding of Power: Bourdieu, Foucault, and Baudrillard**

   - **Pierre Bourdieu** emphasizes power as tied to symbolic systems, social capital, and cultural capital. He argues that power is maintained through the reproduction of social structures, where dominant groups control symbolic power, which influences people's perceptions and behaviors.

   - **Michel Foucault** views power not as a possession but as something that circulates through discourse and institutions. His concept of **biopower** explores how modern states regulate bodies and populations through various institutions. Foucault's idea of power being productive (not just repressive) is central to understanding how power functions in everyday life.

   - **Jean Baudrillard** focuses on the idea that in postmodern societies, power is tied to simulation and media. Power becomes an illusion, sustained by media and signs rather than direct force or authority. Baudrillard argues that power operates through hyperreality, where images and symbols dominate, creating a system where the boundary between reality and simulation becomes blurred.

   - **Required Reading**: Gečienė (2002) explores these three theorists' views on power, offering a comparative analysis of their distinct but interrelated approaches to understanding power in modern society.

#### 2. **Feminist Understanding of Power**

   - Feminist theories offer a critical lens on how power operates along gender lines. **Amy Allen** (2014) outlines feminist critiques of traditional conceptions of power, highlighting how patriarchy, institutions, and social norms work to maintain women's subordination.

   - Feminist perspectives shift the focus from power as domination to power as empowerment, emphasizing how marginalized groups can reclaim agency and challenge oppressive systems. They stress the need for recognizing the intersection of power with other social factors like race, class, and sexuality.

   - **Srilatha Batliwala** (2007) critiques the use of "empowerment" in development discourse, arguing that it has been depoliticized and stripped of its radical potential. Empowerment should not just be about giving individuals more choices but transforming power relations that perpetuate inequality.

#### 3. **Gendered Debate on Power and Empowerment**

   - The **Longwe Framework for Women’s Empowerment** (March, Smyth, and Mukhopadhyay, 1999) highlights the importance of analyzing power through a gendered lens. This framework views empowerment as a process where women move from being passive recipients of development aid to active participants with control over their lives.

   - This debate engages with how empowerment can be understood not just as a top-down process but as one that requires addressing structural inequalities that reinforce women's subordination.

---

### Unit V: **Feminist Methodology**

This unit critiques traditional research methods, particularly positivism, and argues for approaches that are more sensitive to women’s experiences and committed to social change.

#### 1. **Feminist Critique of Positivism and the Value of Reflexivity and Social Change**

   - Feminist scholars critique **positivism**, the traditional scientific method that seeks objectivity and detachment. They argue that positivist approaches ignore the ways in which the researcher’s identity, position, and perspective shape the research process.

   - **Reflexivity** is the practice of reflecting on how one's own social location, assumptions, and biases influence the research. Feminist researchers stress that the goal of research should be not only to understand the world but to change it, making a commitment to social justice central to feminist methodology.

#### 2. **Emerging Approaches in Feminism-Sensitive Research**

   - These approaches involve methods that center women's experiences, particularly those of marginalized groups. Feminist researchers often use qualitative methods, such as interviews and ethnography, to capture the complexity of women’s lived experiences. They also emphasize collaboration with research participants, making them co-creators of knowledge rather than subjects.

   - **Nancy Naples** (2007) explains that feminist methodology challenges hierarchies between researcher and participant, promotes empathy, and calls for research that leads to transformative social change.

#### 3. **Double Consciousness and Feminist Standpoint Epistemology**

   - **Double consciousness**, a concept from W.E.B. Du Bois, refers to the experience of marginalized groups, particularly Black individuals, who must navigate dominant cultural norms while maintaining their own identity. In a feminist context, this idea is expanded to describe how women experience society differently based on their gender, race, class, and sexuality.

   - **Feminist standpoint epistemology** argues that marginalized groups, especially women, have a unique standpoint that allows them to see social realities more clearly. **Sandra Harding** (1993) suggests that this "strong objectivity" is a more valid form of knowledge production than traditional objectivity because it acknowledges the role of social location in shaping understanding.

   - **Abigail Brooks** (2007) builds on this by explaining how women's lived experiences are a valuable source of knowledge. She stresses the importance of building empowerment through research that is rooted in women's real-life experiences.

---

### Key Takeaways:

- **Unit IV: Power and Empowerment** explores how power is understood and contested in sociological and feminist theory, linking it to broader questions of agency, domination, and social change. Feminist perspectives on power critically engage with how power structures maintain gender inequality and how empowerment can be more than a superficial process.

- **Unit V: Feminist Methodology** challenges traditional positivist methods, emphasizing the importance of reflexivity, feminist epistemology, and methods that prioritize social justice. Feminist research aims to not only understand the world but to change it, making women’s experiences central to knowledge production.

These units equip you with the theoretical and methodological tools to critically analyze power and gender in both academic and practical contexts.

Patriarchy and Beyond

 Patriarchy and Beyond 

Unit III. Patriarchy and Beyond 

• Capitalist patriarchy

• Comparing variants of feminist interpretation on patriarchy

• Patriarchy in everyday life: household and intra-household bargaining

Required readings

Lerner, Gerda (1986) "Origins," The Creation of Patriarchy, Chapter 1, Oxford: OUP, pp. 15-35.

Eisenstein, Zillah (1999) "Constructing a theory of capitalist patriarchy and socialist feminism,"

Critical Sociology, vol. 25(2/3), pp. 196-217.

Beechey, Veronica (1979) "On patriarchy," Feminist Review, vol. 3, pp. 66–82.

Kandiyoti, Deniz (1988) "Bargaining with patriarchy," Gender and Society, vol. 2(3), Special

Issue to Honor Jessie Bernard, pp. 274-290.

Agarwal, Bina (1997) “Bargaining and gender relations: within and beyond the household,”

Feminist Economics, vol. 3(1): pp. 1-51.

Additional reading

Bhasin, Kamala (1993) What is Patriarchy? New Delhi: Kali for Women.

Unit III of your course, **Patriarchy and Beyond**, explores how patriarchy operates within different social, economic, and household structures, offering critical insights from various feminist perspectives. Let’s go through the key themes and readings in this unit:

### 1. **Capitalist Patriarchy**

   - **Capitalist patriarchy** refers to the intersection of capitalist economic systems and patriarchal social structures, which together reinforce women’s oppression. This perspective argues that both capitalism and patriarchy rely on women’s subordination to sustain their power and organization.

   - **Zillah Eisenstein** (1999) in her article *Constructing a Theory of Capitalist Patriarchy and Socialist Feminism* explores how patriarchy and capitalism are intertwined, creating a system where women’s reproductive and domestic labor is undervalued and exploited. She argues that socialist feminism is necessary to critique both patriarchy and capitalism, as both systems are inherently oppressive to women.

   - This reading is crucial for understanding the economic dimensions of patriarchy and how feminist theory has evolved to challenge not just gender inequalities but economic ones as well.

### 2. **Comparing Variants of Feminist Interpretation on Patriarchy**

   - Feminist scholars have offered various interpretations of **patriarchy**, some focusing on its historical origins, others on its manifestations in different social structures.

   - **Gerda Lerner** (1986) in *The Creation of Patriarchy* looks at the historical development of patriarchy. In Chapter 1, "Origins," Lerner traces the origins of patriarchal systems to ancient civilizations, where women were subordinated through legal, religious, and cultural norms. She argues that patriarchy is not a natural system but a historically constructed one.

   - **Veronica Beechey** (1979) in her article *On Patriarchy* explores different feminist approaches to patriarchy, distinguishing between radical feminist theories that see patriarchy as the primary system of oppression and Marxist feminist theories that emphasize the relationship between capitalism and patriarchy. Beechey’s work helps students compare how different feminist schools of thought interpret the root causes of gender inequality.

   - This section emphasizes the diversity of feminist thought on patriarchy, showing how scholars from different perspectives have critiqued patriarchy’s role in sustaining gender inequality.

### 3. **Patriarchy in Everyday Life: Household and Intra-household Bargaining**

   - Patriarchy is not just an abstract system but one that operates in everyday life, particularly within households. **Intra-household bargaining** refers to the negotiations and power dynamics that occur between family members, often reflecting broader patriarchal structures.

   - **Deniz Kandiyoti** (1988) in her influential article *Bargaining with Patriarchy* examines how women in different cultural contexts "bargain" with the patriarchal systems they live under. Rather than simply being passive victims of patriarchy, Kandiyoti shows how women navigate and negotiate their roles within these systems to maximize their benefits or reduce their oppression. Her work highlights the agency of women even within patriarchal structures and introduces the concept of "patriarchal bargains," where women may accept certain forms of subordination in exchange for security or other gains.

   - **Bina Agarwal** (1997) in *Bargaining and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household* further explores how bargaining processes shape gender relations not only within households but also in wider social contexts. Agarwal’s work looks at how economic, social, and cultural factors influence power dynamics within households and how women can resist or negotiate patriarchal constraints. This reading connects feminist economic theory with real-world gender relations, making it particularly relevant for understanding patriarchy in a Nepali context.

   - **Kamala Bhasin’s** (1993) *What is Patriarchy?* provides a simple yet powerful explanation of patriarchy, especially focusing on South Asian contexts. Bhasin’s work is useful for understanding how patriarchy manifests in everyday interactions and institutions, making it an accessible entry point into the study of patriarchy.

---

### Key Takeaways:

- **Capitalist Patriarchy**: Zillah Eisenstein’s work demonstrates that patriarchy and capitalism work together to reinforce women’s subordination, especially through the undervaluing of women’s domestic and reproductive labor.

- **Feminist Interpretations of Patriarchy**: Gerda Lerner and Veronica Beechey provide different historical and theoretical analyses of patriarchy. Lerner traces its origins, while Beechey compares different feminist critiques of patriarchy, highlighting the complexity of the system.

- **Intra-household Bargaining**: Deniz Kandiyoti and Bina Agarwal examine how patriarchy operates within households and how women "bargain" within patriarchal systems to assert their agency. These readings explore the micro-level dynamics of gender relations, linking personal experiences to broader structures of inequality.

This unit provides a comprehensive look at how patriarchy operates at both macro (societal) and micro (household) levels, combining economic, social, and cultural perspectives. By understanding these different approaches, you’ll be able to critically analyze the persistence of patriarchy in Nepalese society and beyond.