Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment

 Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 

Unit IV: Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 6 hrs

• Sociological understanding on 'power': Bourdieu, Foucault and Baudrillard

• Feminist understanding on power

• Gendered debate on power and empowerment

Required readings

Geèienë, Ingrida (2002) "The notion of power in the theories of Bourdieu, Foucault and

Baudrillard," Sociologija, vol. 2, pp. 116-124.

Allen, Amy (2014) "Feminist perspectives on power," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

(Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/feminist-power/>.

Batliwala, Srilatha (2007) "Taking the power out of empowerment - an experiential account,"

Development in Practice, vol. 17(4), pp. 557-565.

March, Candida, Ines Smyth and Maietrayee Mukhapadhyah (1999) "Women's empowerment

(Longwe) framework," in A Guide to Gender Analysis Framework, Oxford: Oxfam GB, pp.

92-100.

Unit V: Feminist Methodology 8 hrs

• Feminist critique of positivism and the value for reflexivity and social change

• Emerging approaches in feminism-sensitive research

• Double consciousness and feminist standpoint epistemology

Required readings

Naples, Nancy A. (2007) "Feminist methodology." Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Ritzer,

George (ed). Blackwell Publishing, Blackwell Reference Online, 1 September 2010,

available at:

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_chunk_g978

140512433112_ss1-42, last retrieved on 20 June 2015.

Wambui, Jane (2013) An introduction to feminist research, available online at

http://www.researchgate.net/publictopics.PublicPostFileLoader.html?id=54946308d5a3f2e

0038b4698&key=fb9f096d-d0bd-4e24-87b5-61520a3ed3c0.

Harding, Sandra (1993) "Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is 'strong objectivity'? in

Linda Alcoff, Elizabeth Potter (eds.) Feminist Epistemologies, Routledge, pp. 49-82.

Brooks, Abigail (2007) "Feminist standpoint epistemology: building knowledge and

empowerment through women's lived experience," in Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber &

Patricia Lina Leavy (eds.) Feminist Research Practice, Chapter 3, Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications, pp. 53-82.

Unit IV: Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment 6 hrs

• Sociological understanding on 'power': Bourdieu, Foucault and Baudrillard

• Feminist understanding on power

• Gendered debate on power and empowerment

Required readings

Geèienë, Ingrida (2002) "The notion of power in the theories of Bourdieu, Foucault and

Baudrillard," Sociologija, vol. 2, pp. 116-124.

Allen, Amy (2014) "Feminist perspectives on power," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

(Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =

<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2014/entries/feminist-power/>.

Batliwala, Srilatha (2007) "Taking the power out of empowerment - an experiential account,"

Development in Practice, vol. 17(4), pp. 557-565.

March, Candida, Ines Smyth and Maietrayee Mukhapadhyah (1999) "Women's empowerment

(Longwe) framework," in A Guide to Gender Analysis Framework, Oxford: Oxfam GB, pp.

92-100.

Unit V: Feminist Methodology 8 hrs

• Feminist critique of positivism and the value for reflexivity and social change

• Emerging approaches in feminism-sensitive research

• Double consciousness and feminist standpoint epistemology

Required readings

Naples, Nancy A. (2007) "Feminist methodology." Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. Ritzer,

George (ed). Blackwell Publishing, Blackwell Reference Online, 1 September 2010,

available at:

http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_chunk_g978

140512433112_ss1-42, last retrieved on 20 June 2015.

Wambui, Jane (2013) An introduction to feminist research, available online at

http://www.researchgate.net/publictopics.PublicPostFileLoader.html?id=54946308d5a3f2e

0038b4698&key=fb9f096d-d0bd-4e24-87b5-61520a3ed3c0.

Harding, Sandra (1993) "Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is 'strong objectivity'? in

Linda Alcoff, Elizabeth Potter (eds.) Feminist Epistemologies, Routledge, pp. 49-82.

Brooks, Abigail (2007) "Feminist standpoint epistemology: building knowledge and

empowerment through women's lived experience," in Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber &

Patricia Lina Leavy (eds.) Feminist Research Practice, Chapter 3, Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage Publications, pp. 53-82.

### Unit IV: **Sociological Debate on Power and Empowerment**

This unit delves into various theoretical frameworks of power, focusing on sociological perspectives from scholars like Bourdieu, Foucault, and Baudrillard, and feminist understandings of power and empowerment.

#### 1. **Sociological Understanding of Power: Bourdieu, Foucault, and Baudrillard**

   - **Pierre Bourdieu** emphasizes power as tied to symbolic systems, social capital, and cultural capital. He argues that power is maintained through the reproduction of social structures, where dominant groups control symbolic power, which influences people's perceptions and behaviors.

   - **Michel Foucault** views power not as a possession but as something that circulates through discourse and institutions. His concept of **biopower** explores how modern states regulate bodies and populations through various institutions. Foucault's idea of power being productive (not just repressive) is central to understanding how power functions in everyday life.

   - **Jean Baudrillard** focuses on the idea that in postmodern societies, power is tied to simulation and media. Power becomes an illusion, sustained by media and signs rather than direct force or authority. Baudrillard argues that power operates through hyperreality, where images and symbols dominate, creating a system where the boundary between reality and simulation becomes blurred.

   - **Required Reading**: Gečienė (2002) explores these three theorists' views on power, offering a comparative analysis of their distinct but interrelated approaches to understanding power in modern society.

#### 2. **Feminist Understanding of Power**

   - Feminist theories offer a critical lens on how power operates along gender lines. **Amy Allen** (2014) outlines feminist critiques of traditional conceptions of power, highlighting how patriarchy, institutions, and social norms work to maintain women's subordination.

   - Feminist perspectives shift the focus from power as domination to power as empowerment, emphasizing how marginalized groups can reclaim agency and challenge oppressive systems. They stress the need for recognizing the intersection of power with other social factors like race, class, and sexuality.

   - **Srilatha Batliwala** (2007) critiques the use of "empowerment" in development discourse, arguing that it has been depoliticized and stripped of its radical potential. Empowerment should not just be about giving individuals more choices but transforming power relations that perpetuate inequality.

#### 3. **Gendered Debate on Power and Empowerment**

   - The **Longwe Framework for Women’s Empowerment** (March, Smyth, and Mukhopadhyay, 1999) highlights the importance of analyzing power through a gendered lens. This framework views empowerment as a process where women move from being passive recipients of development aid to active participants with control over their lives.

   - This debate engages with how empowerment can be understood not just as a top-down process but as one that requires addressing structural inequalities that reinforce women's subordination.

---

### Unit V: **Feminist Methodology**

This unit critiques traditional research methods, particularly positivism, and argues for approaches that are more sensitive to women’s experiences and committed to social change.

#### 1. **Feminist Critique of Positivism and the Value of Reflexivity and Social Change**

   - Feminist scholars critique **positivism**, the traditional scientific method that seeks objectivity and detachment. They argue that positivist approaches ignore the ways in which the researcher’s identity, position, and perspective shape the research process.

   - **Reflexivity** is the practice of reflecting on how one's own social location, assumptions, and biases influence the research. Feminist researchers stress that the goal of research should be not only to understand the world but to change it, making a commitment to social justice central to feminist methodology.

#### 2. **Emerging Approaches in Feminism-Sensitive Research**

   - These approaches involve methods that center women's experiences, particularly those of marginalized groups. Feminist researchers often use qualitative methods, such as interviews and ethnography, to capture the complexity of women’s lived experiences. They also emphasize collaboration with research participants, making them co-creators of knowledge rather than subjects.

   - **Nancy Naples** (2007) explains that feminist methodology challenges hierarchies between researcher and participant, promotes empathy, and calls for research that leads to transformative social change.

#### 3. **Double Consciousness and Feminist Standpoint Epistemology**

   - **Double consciousness**, a concept from W.E.B. Du Bois, refers to the experience of marginalized groups, particularly Black individuals, who must navigate dominant cultural norms while maintaining their own identity. In a feminist context, this idea is expanded to describe how women experience society differently based on their gender, race, class, and sexuality.

   - **Feminist standpoint epistemology** argues that marginalized groups, especially women, have a unique standpoint that allows them to see social realities more clearly. **Sandra Harding** (1993) suggests that this "strong objectivity" is a more valid form of knowledge production than traditional objectivity because it acknowledges the role of social location in shaping understanding.

   - **Abigail Brooks** (2007) builds on this by explaining how women's lived experiences are a valuable source of knowledge. She stresses the importance of building empowerment through research that is rooted in women's real-life experiences.

---

### Key Takeaways:

- **Unit IV: Power and Empowerment** explores how power is understood and contested in sociological and feminist theory, linking it to broader questions of agency, domination, and social change. Feminist perspectives on power critically engage with how power structures maintain gender inequality and how empowerment can be more than a superficial process.

- **Unit V: Feminist Methodology** challenges traditional positivist methods, emphasizing the importance of reflexivity, feminist epistemology, and methods that prioritize social justice. Feminist research aims to not only understand the world but to change it, making women’s experiences central to knowledge production.

These units equip you with the theoretical and methodological tools to critically analyze power and gender in both academic and practical contexts.

Patriarchy and Beyond

 Patriarchy and Beyond 

Unit III. Patriarchy and Beyond 

• Capitalist patriarchy

• Comparing variants of feminist interpretation on patriarchy

• Patriarchy in everyday life: household and intra-household bargaining

Required readings

Lerner, Gerda (1986) "Origins," The Creation of Patriarchy, Chapter 1, Oxford: OUP, pp. 15-35.

Eisenstein, Zillah (1999) "Constructing a theory of capitalist patriarchy and socialist feminism,"

Critical Sociology, vol. 25(2/3), pp. 196-217.

Beechey, Veronica (1979) "On patriarchy," Feminist Review, vol. 3, pp. 66–82.

Kandiyoti, Deniz (1988) "Bargaining with patriarchy," Gender and Society, vol. 2(3), Special

Issue to Honor Jessie Bernard, pp. 274-290.

Agarwal, Bina (1997) “Bargaining and gender relations: within and beyond the household,”

Feminist Economics, vol. 3(1): pp. 1-51.

Additional reading

Bhasin, Kamala (1993) What is Patriarchy? New Delhi: Kali for Women.

Unit III of your course, **Patriarchy and Beyond**, explores how patriarchy operates within different social, economic, and household structures, offering critical insights from various feminist perspectives. Let’s go through the key themes and readings in this unit:

### 1. **Capitalist Patriarchy**

   - **Capitalist patriarchy** refers to the intersection of capitalist economic systems and patriarchal social structures, which together reinforce women’s oppression. This perspective argues that both capitalism and patriarchy rely on women’s subordination to sustain their power and organization.

   - **Zillah Eisenstein** (1999) in her article *Constructing a Theory of Capitalist Patriarchy and Socialist Feminism* explores how patriarchy and capitalism are intertwined, creating a system where women’s reproductive and domestic labor is undervalued and exploited. She argues that socialist feminism is necessary to critique both patriarchy and capitalism, as both systems are inherently oppressive to women.

   - This reading is crucial for understanding the economic dimensions of patriarchy and how feminist theory has evolved to challenge not just gender inequalities but economic ones as well.

### 2. **Comparing Variants of Feminist Interpretation on Patriarchy**

   - Feminist scholars have offered various interpretations of **patriarchy**, some focusing on its historical origins, others on its manifestations in different social structures.

   - **Gerda Lerner** (1986) in *The Creation of Patriarchy* looks at the historical development of patriarchy. In Chapter 1, "Origins," Lerner traces the origins of patriarchal systems to ancient civilizations, where women were subordinated through legal, religious, and cultural norms. She argues that patriarchy is not a natural system but a historically constructed one.

   - **Veronica Beechey** (1979) in her article *On Patriarchy* explores different feminist approaches to patriarchy, distinguishing between radical feminist theories that see patriarchy as the primary system of oppression and Marxist feminist theories that emphasize the relationship between capitalism and patriarchy. Beechey’s work helps students compare how different feminist schools of thought interpret the root causes of gender inequality.

   - This section emphasizes the diversity of feminist thought on patriarchy, showing how scholars from different perspectives have critiqued patriarchy’s role in sustaining gender inequality.

### 3. **Patriarchy in Everyday Life: Household and Intra-household Bargaining**

   - Patriarchy is not just an abstract system but one that operates in everyday life, particularly within households. **Intra-household bargaining** refers to the negotiations and power dynamics that occur between family members, often reflecting broader patriarchal structures.

   - **Deniz Kandiyoti** (1988) in her influential article *Bargaining with Patriarchy* examines how women in different cultural contexts "bargain" with the patriarchal systems they live under. Rather than simply being passive victims of patriarchy, Kandiyoti shows how women navigate and negotiate their roles within these systems to maximize their benefits or reduce their oppression. Her work highlights the agency of women even within patriarchal structures and introduces the concept of "patriarchal bargains," where women may accept certain forms of subordination in exchange for security or other gains.

   - **Bina Agarwal** (1997) in *Bargaining and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household* further explores how bargaining processes shape gender relations not only within households but also in wider social contexts. Agarwal’s work looks at how economic, social, and cultural factors influence power dynamics within households and how women can resist or negotiate patriarchal constraints. This reading connects feminist economic theory with real-world gender relations, making it particularly relevant for understanding patriarchy in a Nepali context.

   - **Kamala Bhasin’s** (1993) *What is Patriarchy?* provides a simple yet powerful explanation of patriarchy, especially focusing on South Asian contexts. Bhasin’s work is useful for understanding how patriarchy manifests in everyday interactions and institutions, making it an accessible entry point into the study of patriarchy.

---

### Key Takeaways:

- **Capitalist Patriarchy**: Zillah Eisenstein’s work demonstrates that patriarchy and capitalism work together to reinforce women’s subordination, especially through the undervaluing of women’s domestic and reproductive labor.

- **Feminist Interpretations of Patriarchy**: Gerda Lerner and Veronica Beechey provide different historical and theoretical analyses of patriarchy. Lerner traces its origins, while Beechey compares different feminist critiques of patriarchy, highlighting the complexity of the system.

- **Intra-household Bargaining**: Deniz Kandiyoti and Bina Agarwal examine how patriarchy operates within households and how women "bargain" within patriarchal systems to assert their agency. These readings explore the micro-level dynamics of gender relations, linking personal experiences to broader structures of inequality.

This unit provides a comprehensive look at how patriarchy operates at both macro (societal) and micro (household) levels, combining economic, social, and cultural perspectives. By understanding these different approaches, you’ll be able to critically analyze the persistence of patriarchy in Nepalese society and beyond.

Feminist Theories

 Feminist Theories 

Unit II: Feminist Theories 

• Liberal feminism (Simone de Beauvoir)

• Socialist feminism (Maria Mies)

• Third-wave feminism (Chandra Talpade Mohanty)

• Radical feminism (Kate Millett)

• Variants of feminist interpretations on women's subordination

Required readings

de Beauvoir, S. (1949) “The data on biology,” The second Sex, Chapter 1, Penguin Modern

Classics, pp. 33 -64.

Mies, Maria (1981) The social origins of the sexual division of labour, Occasional Paper No. 85,

The Hague: Institute of Social Studies.

Mohanty, C. T. (2002) "'Under Western eyes' revisited: feminist solidarity through anticapitalist

struggles," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, vol. 28(2), pp. 499-535.

Millett, Kate (1969) "Theory of sexual politics," Sexual Politics, Chapter 2, Granada Publishing.

Luintel, Youba Raj (2006) Gendered analysis of women’s subordination, a draft manuscript,

Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University.

Unit II of your Sociology of Gender course focuses on **Feminist Theories**, each providing a different perspective on the causes and solutions for women's subordination. Here's an in-depth explanation of the key theories and readings:

### 1. **Liberal Feminism (Simone de Beauvoir)**

   - **Liberal feminism** seeks equality for women through political and legal reforms, focusing on individual rights and freedoms. It is grounded in the belief that gender equality can be achieved by eliminating discriminatory laws and practices.

   - **Simone de Beauvoir**, one of the foundational figures in liberal feminism, explores the concept of women’s oppression in her work *The Second Sex*. In Chapter 1, "The Data on Biology," she argues that women’s subordination is not based on biological differences but rather on how society has interpreted these differences.

   - Beauvoir famously stated that "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman," emphasizing that gender is a social construct. The social conditions that limit women’s opportunities and freedoms, rather than biological determinism, are the true source of inequality.

   - This reading challenges biological essentialism, the idea that biology determines gender roles, and sets the stage for understanding how social structures shape gender inequality.

### 2. **Socialist Feminism (Maria Mies)**

   - **Socialist feminism** integrates Marxist theory and feminist analysis to understand women’s oppression as a result of both capitalism and patriarchy. It focuses on the intersection of class and gender exploitation, arguing that women's liberation requires a fundamental transformation of the economic system.

   - **Maria Mies** in *The Social Origins of the Sexual Division of Labour* discusses how capitalism relies on the unpaid labor of women in the private sphere, which sustains the paid labor of men in the public sphere. This division reinforces both economic and gender hierarchies.

   - Mies analyzes how colonialism and capitalism historically exploited women’s reproductive and domestic labor, contributing to the global oppression of women.

   - Her work is crucial for understanding how the sexual division of labor is socially constructed to serve economic interests, perpetuating women’s economic dependence and subordination.

### 3. **Third-Wave Feminism (Chandra Talpade Mohanty)**

   - **Third-wave feminism** emphasizes diversity, intersectionality, and the experiences of women from different backgrounds, particularly women of color. It critiques earlier feminist movements for focusing primarily on the issues of middle-class white women.

   - **Chandra Talpade Mohanty** is a key figure in third-wave and postcolonial feminism. In her essay "'Under Western Eyes' Revisited: Feminist Solidarity through Anticapitalist Struggles," she critiques Western feminists for imposing their perspectives on women from the Global South.

   - Mohanty argues that women’s oppression cannot be understood without considering race, class, and global capitalism. She advocates for feminist solidarity that is based on shared struggles against capitalism and imperialism rather than a universalist approach that ignores cultural and economic differences.

   - This reading is vital for understanding how feminism must be inclusive of diverse experiences and avoid replicating the power structures it seeks to dismantle.

### 4. **Radical Feminism (Kate Millett)**

   - **Radical feminism** sees patriarchy as the root cause of women’s oppression. It argues that male dominance pervades every aspect of society, from personal relationships to political institutions, and that only a complete overthrow of these structures can bring about gender equality.

   - **Kate Millett**’s work *Sexual Politics* is a foundational text in radical feminism. In Chapter 2, "Theory of Sexual Politics," she analyzes how power dynamics in sexual relationships reflect and reinforce patriarchy. She examines literature, politics, and everyday interactions to reveal how male dominance is maintained and normalized.

   - Millett’s theory of sexual politics argues that power relations between men and women are inherently political. She highlights how traditional gender roles and sexual norms sustain patriarchy by reinforcing male dominance and female submission.

   - This work is significant for understanding how patriarchy operates not just through formal institutions but also through intimate and personal relationships.

### 5. **Variants of Feminist Interpretations on Women's Subordination**

   - The various strands of feminist thought, including **liberal, socialist, third-wave, and radical feminism**, offer different explanations for women's subordination and different strategies for liberation.

   - **Youba Raj Luintel’s** manuscript *Gendered Analysis of Women’s Subordination* offers a localized examination of how these feminist theories can be applied to the context of Nepal. This work may explore how historical, cultural, and economic factors specific to Nepal contribute to women's oppression, providing a bridge between global feminist theories and local gender dynamics.

---

### Key Concepts:

- **Liberal Feminism**: Advocates for legal and political reforms to ensure equal rights for women. Simone de Beauvoir’s work challenges biological determinism and highlights social structures as the root of gender inequality.

- **Socialist Feminism**: Argues that women’s oppression is rooted in both capitalism and patriarchy. Maria Mies examines how the sexual division of labor exploits women’s unpaid labor to sustain capitalist systems.

- **Third-Wave Feminism**: Critiques earlier feminist movements for being exclusionary and emphasizes the importance of intersectionality. Chandra Talpade Mohanty calls for a feminism that is inclusive of diverse experiences and focused on anticapitalist struggles.

- **Radical Feminism**: Sees patriarchy as the root of all forms of oppression and argues that only a radical restructuring of society can lead to gender equality. Kate Millett’s work examines how sexual politics perpetuates male dominance.

This unit provides a diverse set of feminist frameworks that you can use to analyze the various dimensions of women’s subordination, both in global and Nepalese contexts.

Social Construction of Gender

 Social Construction of Gender

Unit I:Social Construction of Gender

• Sex, and social construction of gender

• Gender as routine accomplishment in everyday interaction

• Gender as social structure

• Sex roles and gender division of labour

Required readings

Little, William and Ron McGivern (2013) "The difference between sex and gender,"

Introduction to Sociology – 1st Canadian Edition, British Columbia: OpenStax College,

Chapter 12.

West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987) "Doing gender," Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151.

Lorber, Judith (1994) " 'Night to his day': the social construction of gender," Paradoxes or

Gender, Yale University Press pp. 13-36.

Marini, Margaret Mooney (1990) "Sex and gender: what do we know?" Sociological Forum, vol.

5(1), pp. 95-120.

Unit I on the **Social Construction of Gender** explores how gender is shaped, maintained, and experienced through social interactions and societal structures. Let’s go over the key topics and readings in this unit:

### 1. **Sex and the Social Construction of Gender**

   - **Sex** refers to biological differences (e.g., chromosomes, hormones, reproductive organs) that categorize humans as male or female.

   - **Gender**, in contrast, is socially constructed, meaning that the expectations, behaviors, and roles associated with being male or female are created by society rather than dictated by biology.

   - The required reading by **William Little and Ron McGivern** in *Introduction to Sociology* explains this distinction between sex and gender. The chapter delves into how societies have different cultural expectations for people based on their gender and how these expectations shape identity and social roles.

### 2. **Gender as Routine Accomplishment in Everyday Interaction**

   - The idea that gender is something we "do" rather than something we inherently "are" is captured in the work of **West and Zimmerman** (1987) in their paper "Doing Gender."

   - According to them, gender is not simply a personal identity but a routine accomplishment that individuals perform in everyday social interactions. This performance is guided by societal norms and expectations about what is considered masculine or feminine.

   - For example, in conversation, physical appearance, or work settings, people adjust their behavior to align with their society’s gender expectations, even if unconsciously.

   - This reading emphasizes that gender is a constant process, not a fixed state.

### 3. **Gender as Social Structure**

   - **Judith Lorber’s** (1994) essay “Night to His Day” in *Paradoxes of Gender* presents the idea that gender is a fundamental social structure that organizes nearly all areas of social life.

   - Lorber explains that from birth, individuals are classified into gender categories (male/female) that come with specific roles, rights, and duties. These classifications then influence how they are treated, what opportunities are available, and how they perceive themselves.

   - By viewing gender as a social structure, we can see how it shapes not only individual identities but also institutions like family, education, and the economy.

### 4. **Sex Roles and Gender Division of Labor**

   - This topic addresses how societies assign different roles to individuals based on their sex, often leading to a gender division of labor. This means men and women are expected to perform different tasks and fulfill different responsibilities in both domestic and professional settings.

   - **Marini’s** (1990) paper "Sex and Gender: What Do We Know?" explores the concept of sex roles and examines how these roles are socially constructed to justify the gendered division of labor. Marini highlights how these sex roles have historically placed men in the public sphere (e.g., paid labor) and women in the private sphere (e.g., household work).

   - This division reinforces traditional gender norms and contributes to the persistence of gender inequality in society.

---

### Key Takeaways:

- **Social Construction of Gender**: Gender is not an inherent biological trait but a set of socially created norms and expectations that individuals learn and perform.

- **Doing Gender**: Gender is continuously enacted through daily behaviors and interactions, shaping how individuals conform to or resist societal norms.

- **Gender as Social Structure**: Gender is embedded in societal institutions and affects every aspect of life, including work, family, and politics.

- **Gender Division of Labor**: Societal norms assign different roles to men and women, often reinforcing inequality by relegating women to unpaid or undervalued labor.

These readings provide a foundational understanding of how sociologists analyze gender not as a static identity but as a dynamic and socially constructed category that influences all aspects of life.