Structural Explanations of GBV

 Structural Explanations of GBV

The sociological approach to understanding violence against women (VAW), particularly gender-based violence (GBV), involves examining both structural and cultural explanations. In the context of Nepal, recent studies highlight various drivers of GBV, which are deeply rooted in societal norms, economic conditions, and power dynamics.

## Structural Explanations of GBV

### 1. **Patriarchal Structures**

Nepalese society is characterized by entrenched patriarchal norms that dictate gender roles and expectations. Men are often seen as the primary decision-makers and breadwinners, while women are relegated to subordinate roles within the household. This power imbalance creates an environment where violence against women is normalized and often justified.

### 2. **Economic Inequality**

Economic dependency plays a significant role in perpetuating GBV. Many women in Nepal lack financial independence, making it difficult for them to leave abusive relationships. The prevalence of informal employment, low wages, and limited access to resources further exacerbates women's vulnerability to violence. Studies indicate that economic stressors can lead to increased tensions within households, often resulting in domestic violence.

### 3. **Legal and Institutional Frameworks**

While Nepal has made strides in establishing legal protections against GBV through various laws (e.g., the Domestic Violence Act), enforcement remains weak. Institutions tasked with protecting women's rights often lack the necessary resources and training to respond effectively to GBV cases. For instance, the availability of One Stop Crisis Management Centers (OSCMCs) is limited, and many survivors face barriers in accessing justice due to stigma and fear of retribution.

## Cultural Explanations of GBV

### 1. **Social Norms and Gender Roles**

Cultural beliefs about masculinity and femininity significantly influence attitudes toward GBV. Rigid social norms dictate acceptable behaviors for men and women, often glorifying male aggression while portraying female submission as virtuous. The normalization of domestic violence as a means of asserting control over women is pervasive, with many individuals believing it is a private matter rather than a societal issue.

### 2. **Stigma and Silence**

The stigma surrounding GBV prevents many survivors from seeking help or reporting incidents of violence. Cultural taboos about discussing issues related to sexuality and violence contribute to a culture of silence, where victims fear social ostracism or retaliation from their families or communities. Recent studies indicate that a significant percentage of women who experience violence do not report it due to these societal pressures.

### 3. **Impact of Migration and Displacement**

Migration patterns also play a role in shaping gendered experiences of violence. Women who migrate for work may face increased risks of exploitation and abuse, particularly if they are in unfamiliar environments or lack support networks. Additionally, returning migrants may bring back harmful attitudes toward women that perpetuate cycles of violence.

## Main Drivers of GBV in Nepal

Recent studies have identified several key drivers of GBV in Nepal:

- **Domestic Violence**: A significant proportion of reported cases involve domestic violence, with family members often being the perpetrators. The National Women Commission's helpline statistics indicate that domestic violence constitutes about 86% of reported cases[1].

- **Child Marriage**: Early marriage increases women's vulnerability to violence as they may be unprepared for adult responsibilities and lack agency within their relationships[4]. Women married before the age of 19 are more likely to experience violence from their husbands compared to those who marry later[4].

- **Substance Abuse**: Alcohol abuse among male partners is frequently cited as a contributing factor to domestic violence, leading to heightened tensions and aggressive behavior within households[6].

- **Caste and Ethnicity**: Discrimination based on caste and ethnicity exacerbates vulnerabilities among marginalized groups, limiting their access to resources and support systems[5][8]. Women from lower caste backgrounds often face compounded discrimination, increasing their risk of experiencing GBV.

- **Economic Stressors**: Economic hardships, particularly exacerbated by crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, have led to increased instances of GBV as families struggle with financial pressures[4][8].

## Conclusion

Understanding gender-based violence in Nepal requires a comprehensive sociological approach that considers both structural inequalities and cultural norms. The interplay between patriarchy, economic dependency, legal inadequacies, social stigma, and cultural beliefs creates an environment where GBV persists as a significant issue. Addressing these drivers through integrated policy responses—such as improving legal frameworks, enhancing support services for survivors, challenging harmful cultural norms, and promoting economic empowerment—is crucial for reducing GBV in Nepal.

Citations:

[1] https://nwc.gov.np/Publication_file/5dd4f3910f867_Helpline.pdf

[2] https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/55092-001-ssa.pdf

[3] https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/endpovertyinsouthasia/addressing-gender-based-violence-nepal

[4] https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2022/11/24/acting-together-to-end-gender-based-violence

[5] https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/formativeresearchbrief.englishversion.pdf

[6] https://www.kumj.com.np/issue/42/179-184.pdf

[7] https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.14.24307359v1.full

[8] https://www.equaltimes.org/gender-based-violence-in-nepal-the?lang=en

Pierre Bourdieu: Power as a Social Construct

Pierre Bourdieu: Power as a Social Construct 

The conceptualizations of power by Pierre Bourdieu, Michel Foucault, and Jean Baudrillard offer distinct but complementary frameworks for understanding gendered power dynamics. Each theorist provides insights into how power operates within social structures and affects individuals' identities and relationships.

## Pierre Bourdieu: Power as a Social Construct

### Conceptualization of Power

Bourdieu's notion of power is encapsulated in his concepts of *habitus*, *field*, and *capital*. He argues that power is not merely a top-down force exerted by institutions but is embedded in social practices and relationships. 

- **Habitus**: This refers to the ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that individuals acquire through their life experiences. It shapes how people perceive the world and react to it, influencing their behavior within various social contexts.

- **Field**: Bourdieu describes society as composed of various fields (e.g., education, art, politics) where individuals compete for different forms of capital (economic, social, cultural). Each field has its own rules and power dynamics.

- **Capital**: Bourdieu identifies multiple forms of capital that individuals can possess or acquire. In terms of gender, cultural capital (education, knowledge) and social capital (networks and relationships) can empower women within patriarchal structures.

### Relevance to Gendered Power Dynamics

Bourdieu’s framework helps explain how gender inequalities are reproduced through social practices. For instance, women may internalize societal expectations (habitus) that limit their ambitions or reinforce traditional roles. However, by accumulating cultural and social capital, women can navigate these fields more effectively, challenging patriarchal norms from within.

## Michel Foucault: Power as Relational and Discursive

### Conceptualization of Power

Foucault presents a radically different view of power as decentralized and relational. He argues that power is not held by institutions or individuals but is dispersed throughout society and manifested in everyday interactions.

- **Power/Knowledge**: Foucault emphasizes the relationship between power and knowledge, asserting that knowledge production is a means of exercising power. Discourses shape how we understand ourselves and others, including gender identities.

- **Surveillance and Discipline**: Foucault introduces the idea of surveillance as a mechanism of control. Institutions (like schools or hospitals) regulate behavior through disciplinary practices that normalize certain standards of conduct.

### Relevance to Gendered Power Dynamics

Foucault's theories illuminate how gender norms are enforced through societal expectations and institutional practices. For example, the regulation of women's bodies through medical discourses or societal judgments exemplifies how power operates at micro levels. By understanding power as relational, feminist movements can identify various sites of resistance against oppressive norms.

## Jean Baudrillard: Power as Simulacra and Seduction

### Conceptualization of Power

Baudrillard offers a unique perspective on power that focuses on simulation and seduction rather than traditional notions of domination. He argues that in contemporary society, reality has been replaced by simulacra—representations that distort or replace the real.

- **Simulacra**: Baudrillard posits that we live in a world where images and signs have become detached from their original meanings. This creates a hyperreality where distinctions between reality and representation blur.

- **Power as Challenge**: He suggests that power is not just about domination but involves a cycle of seduction and challenge between subjects. This means individuals have the potential to resist or subvert dominant narratives through their choices.

### Relevance to Gendered Power Dynamics

Baudrillard's ideas are particularly relevant in analyzing how gender identities are constructed through media representations and cultural narratives. The hyperreality of gender roles—where ideals often overshadow lived experiences—can lead to both compliance with and resistance against patriarchal norms. Women may navigate these representations strategically, using them to assert agency while also critiquing the underlying structures they represent.

## Conclusion

The theories of Bourdieu, Foucault, and Baudrillard provide rich frameworks for understanding gendered power dynamics. Bourdieu emphasizes the importance of social practices and capital in navigating patriarchal structures; Foucault highlights the relational nature of power embedded in discourse; while Baudrillard critiques the role of simulation in shaping identities and experiences. Together, these perspectives underscore the complexity of power relations in society, particularly regarding gender, revealing both constraints and opportunities for empowerment within patriarchal systems.

Citations:

[1] https://davidolney.com.au/jean-baudrillard-and-the-existence-of-meaning/

[2] https://baudrillardstudies.ubishops.ca/the-agony-of-power-the-power-of-agony-post-baudrillard-theory-and-post-political-politics/

[3] https://philarchive.org/archive/AJVBTA

[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard

[5] https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/baudrillard/

[6] https://cyberartsweb.org/cpace/theory/baudrillard/raizman.html

[7] https://www2.kobe-u.ac.jp/~alexroni/IPD%202015%20readings/IPD%202015_5/under-western-eyes.pdf

[8] https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=greatplainssociologist

Bargaining with Patriarchy

Bargaining with Patriarchy

Deniz Kandiyoti's concept of "bargaining with patriarchy" provides a framework for understanding how women navigate and negotiate their roles and rights within patriarchal structures, particularly in the context of household dynamics. This concept highlights the strategies women employ to assert agency while simultaneously accommodating the constraints imposed by patriarchal norms.

## Bargaining with Patriarchy

### Concept Overview

Kandiyoti argues that women engage in a process of bargaining with patriarchal systems to secure certain rights and privileges while also negotiating their subordination. This bargaining is not merely about resistance; it involves a complex interplay of compliance, negotiation, and strategic adaptation to existing power structures. Women’s experiences and strategies vary significantly based on cultural, social, and economic contexts, making these bargains "situated" and dynamic.

### Key Aspects of Bargaining

1. **Negotiation of Roles**: In many households, women negotiate their roles by balancing traditional expectations with personal aspirations. For instance, a woman may agree to take on primary caregiving responsibilities while simultaneously seeking support for her educational or professional goals. This negotiation often involves discussions with family members about the division of labor and the recognition of women's contributions beyond domestic spheres.

2. **Strategic Compliance**: Women often find ways to comply with patriarchal norms while subtly subverting them. For example, they may frame their participation in paid work as beneficial for the family’s economic stability, thereby gaining legitimacy for their roles outside the home. This strategic compliance allows women to navigate patriarchal expectations without outright confrontation.

3. **Utilizing Cultural Norms**: Women may leverage cultural and religious norms to legitimize their actions within patriarchal frameworks. For instance, they might emphasize their roles as mothers or caregivers to gain support for their involvement in community activities or business ventures. By aligning their desires with culturally accepted narratives, women can negotiate greater autonomy while maintaining familial harmony.

4. **Household Dynamics**: Within household dynamics, bargaining often involves negotiating consent from male family members for various decisions, such as pursuing education or engaging in community work. Women may seek approval or support from husbands or fathers, framing their requests in ways that align with traditional gender roles, thereby reinforcing their standing within the family while still advocating for personal agency.

5. **Context-Specific Strategies**: The strategies employed by women are heavily influenced by the socio-economic context in which they live. In contexts where economic pressures are high, women may negotiate more assertively for their rights due to the necessity of contributing financially to the household. Conversely, in more affluent settings, women might have greater opportunities to challenge traditional roles outright.

## Implications of Bargaining

The concept of bargaining with patriarchy reveals several important implications for understanding women's agency:

- **Agency Within Constraints**: Women are not merely passive victims of patriarchy; they actively negotiate their positions within it. This agency is often exercised through subtle means rather than overt rebellion, reflecting a nuanced understanding of power dynamics.

- **Transformative Potential**: While bargaining can reinforce existing power structures, it also holds transformative potential. As women gain more rights and recognition through these negotiations, they can gradually shift societal norms and expectations regarding gender roles.

- **Intersectionality**: The effectiveness of bargaining strategies is influenced by various factors such as class, race, ethnicity, and cultural background. Recognizing this intersectionality is crucial for understanding how different groups of women experience and navigate patriarchy differently.

## Conclusion

Deniz Kandiyoti's concept of "bargaining with patriarchy" offers valuable insights into how women negotiate their roles and rights within patriarchal structures in everyday life. By highlighting the complexities of these negotiations—ranging from strategic compliance to leveraging cultural norms—Kandiyoti emphasizes that women's agency exists even within restrictive environments. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing effective strategies for promoting gender equality and empowering women across diverse contexts.

Citations:

[1] https://academic.oup.com/isagsq/article/4/1/ksae004/7618596

[2] https://www.amacad.org/publication/daedalus/cooperation-conflict-patriarchal-labyrinth

[3] https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08985626.2018.1551792

[4] https://www.international-alert.org/publications/breaking-the-gender-trap-challenging-patriarchal-norms-to-clear-pathways-for-peace/

[5] https://www.gla.ac.uk/0t4/crcees/files/summerschool/readings/WestZimmerman_1987_DoingGender.pdf

[6] https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=greatplainssociologist

[7] https://research.gold.ac.uk/id/eprint/34776/3/Ismail%20Mohanty%20and%20Third%20World%20Feminism%20-%20FINAL.pdf

Marxist Feminism

Marxist Feminism

Feminist interpretations of patriarchy vary significantly across different schools of thought, particularly among Marxist, Radical, and Socialist feminists. Each perspective offers a unique understanding of how patriarchy operates and its implications for women's oppression. Below is a comparison of these interpretations.

## Marxist Feminism

### Conceptualization of Patriarchy

Marxist feminists argue that patriarchy is intrinsically linked to capitalism. They contend that women’s oppression stems primarily from their economic exploitation within a capitalist system. This perspective emphasizes that capitalism relies on the unpaid domestic labor of women, which supports the workforce and sustains the economy without being recognized or compensated.

### Key Points

- **Economic Basis**: Marxist feminists view the family as a microcosm of capitalist exploitation, where women perform unpaid labor that benefits the capitalist system. Women are seen as a "reserve army" of labor, called upon when needed and dismissed when not.

  

- **Class Struggle**: The struggle against capitalism is viewed as central to women's liberation. Marxist feminists assert that dismantling capitalist structures will also dismantle patriarchal systems, as both are interdependent.

- **Historical Materialism**: This approach emphasizes the historical evolution of women's roles in society, linking the rise of patriarchy to the development of private property and class society. Friedrich Engels' work highlights how women's status declined with the emergence of capitalism and private property.

## Radical Feminism

### Conceptualization of Patriarchy

Radical feminists assert that patriarchy is a fundamental and pervasive system of oppression that predates capitalism. They argue that male dominance is the primary form of oppression and that it manifests in all aspects of society, including culture, politics, and personal relationships.

### Key Points

- **Patriarchy as a System**: Radical feminists view patriarchy as a global system where men, as a class, oppress women. They argue that this oppression is maintained through social norms, institutions, and practices that favor male dominance.

- **Sexual Politics**: This perspective emphasizes the importance of sexual politics in understanding women's subordination. Radical feminists believe that sexual relationships are inherently political and reflect broader power dynamics.

- **Revolutionary Change**: Unlike Marxist feminists who focus on economic structures, radical feminists advocate for a complete overhaul of societal norms and institutions to eliminate patriarchy. They emphasize the need for women's autonomy and self-determination beyond mere equality with men.

## Socialist Feminism

### Conceptualization of Patriarchy

Socialist feminists integrate elements from both Marxist and Radical feminism, arguing that both capitalism and patriarchy must be addressed to achieve true gender equality. They contend that women's oppression cannot be fully understood without considering both economic exploitation and social inequality.

### Key Points

- **Intersectionality**: Socialist feminists emphasize the interconnectedness of various forms of oppression, including classism, racism, and sexism. They advocate for an intersectional approach that recognizes how these systems interact to shape women's experiences.

- **Collective Action**: This perspective promotes collective action among women across different classes to challenge both capitalist and patriarchal structures. Socialist feminists believe that solidarity among women can lead to transformative change.

- **Focus on Social Reproduction**: Socialist feminists highlight the importance of social reproduction—the unpaid labor involved in raising children and maintaining households—as critical to understanding women's roles within both capitalism and patriarchy.

## Conclusion

In summary, while Marxist feminism focuses on the economic dimensions of women's oppression within capitalism, Radical feminism emphasizes patriarchy as a primary system of domination independent of economic structures. Socialist feminism seeks to synthesize these perspectives by addressing both capitalism and patriarchy through an intersectional lens. Each feminist interpretation offers valuable insights into the complexities of women's subordination, highlighting different pathways toward liberation and equality.

Citations:

[1] https://marxistleftreview.org/articles/the-poverty-of-patriarchy-theory/

[2] https://www.simplypsychology.org/marxist-feminism.html

[3] https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=greatplainssociologist

[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_feminism

[5] https://www2.kobe-u.ac.jp/~alexroni/IPD%202015%20readings/IPD%202015_5/under-western-eyes.pdf

[6] https://uregina.ca/~gingrich/mar1098.htm

[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_feminism

[8] https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/2014/08/09/mies-maria-2/