The Structure of Sociological Theory 

About Jonathan H. Turner

Jonathan H. Turner is a prominent American sociologist, who has made significant contributions to the fields of social theory, organizational theory, and sociology of emotions. He was born in 1942 in St. Louis, Missouri, and obtained his Ph.D. in sociology from Cornell University in 1968.

Turner is best known for his work on social theory, where he has developed a range of theoretical frameworks that seek to explain the nature of social structure, social change, and social action. His contributions to social theory include the development of social roles theory, which explores the ways in which social roles shape individual behavior and identity, and the theory of social institutions, which examines the ways in which institutions emerge, evolve, and shape social life.

In addition to his work on social theory, Turner has also made significant contributions to the fields of organizational theory and sociology of emotions. He has explored the ways in which emotions shape social interaction and organizational behavior, and has developed theoretical frameworks that seek to explain the relationship between emotions, social structure, and social change.

Turner has been a professor of sociology at the University of California, Riverside since 1980, where he has also served as chair of the sociology department and dean of the College of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences. He has received numerous awards for his contributions to sociology, including the Cooley-Mead Award for Lifetime Achievement in Social Psychology from the American Sociological Association in 2011.

About George C. Homans'

George C. Homans (1910-1989) was an American sociologist who is best known for his contributions to the field of social exchange theory. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts, and earned his PhD in sociology from Harvard University in 1939.

Homans was one of the pioneers of social exchange theory, which seeks to explain social behavior in terms of the rewards and costs that individuals perceive in their interactions with others. He argued that individuals engage in social interactions based on their expectations of rewards and costs, and that these expectations are shaped by their previous experiences with similar interactions.

Homans developed several key concepts in social exchange theory, including the concepts of social exchange, reciprocity, and the principle of least interest. He also developed the idea of "behavioral psychology," which applied the principles of behaviorism to the study of social behavior.

Homans' work has had a significant impact on sociological theory, and his ideas continue to be studied and applied in a variety of fields. However, his approach has also been criticized for its reductionism and neglect of important social factors such as power and inequality.

In addition to his work on social exchange theory, Homans made contributions to the study of organizations, social structure, and social change. He was a professor of sociology at Harvard University from 1954 to 1969, and later taught at the University of Chicago and the University of California, Santa Cruz.

Criticisms of Homan's strategy and exchange theory 

Chapter 11

The exchange behaviorism of George C. Homans

There are several criticisms of George Homans' strategy of exchange theory and exchange behaviorism in sociology. Some of the major criticisms are:

Reductionism: Homans' exchange theory reduces complex social phenomena to individual actions motivated by the desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs. Critics argue that this approach oversimplifies social behavior and neglects important social, cultural, and historical factors that shape social outcomes.

Lack of attention to power and inequality: Homans' exchange theory assumes that individuals are free and equal agents who engage in social interactions based on mutual benefit. Critics argue that this approach overlooks power and inequality in social relations, and fails to account for the ways in which individuals with more power and resources are able to manipulate social interactions to their advantage.

Neglect of social norms and values: Homans' exchange theory emphasizes individual choice and agency in shaping social behavior, but neglects the influence of social norms and values in shaping social outcomes. Critics argue that social norms and values play a significant role in shaping social behavior and cannot be ignored in sociological analysis.

Oversimplification of emotions: Homans' exchange theory assumes that emotions are a response to social rewards and costs, and overlooks the complexity of emotions and their role in shaping social behavior. Critics argue that emotions are a more complex and multifaceted phenomenon that cannot be reduced to simple responses to rewards and costs.

Despite these criticisms, Homans' exchange theory and behaviorism have had a significant impact on sociological theory, and continue to be studied and applied in a variety of fields. The challenge for sociologists is to recognize the limitations of reductionism and individualism while still drawing insights from Homans' work on social exchange theory.

The issue of reductionism 

Reductionism is a key issue in the structure of sociological theory. Reductionism is the tendency to reduce complex social phenomena to simpler, more basic explanations. This can be problematic in sociology because social phenomena are often complex and multifaceted, and reducing them to simpler explanations can overlook important social, cultural, and historical factors that shape social behavior.

Reductionism can take many forms in sociological theory. For example, some theorists may reduce social behavior to biological or psychological factors, while others may reduce it to economic or political factors. The problem with reductionism is that it overlooks the complexity of social behavior and fails to account for the variety of factors that can influence social outcomes.

Despite its limitations, reductionism has been a popular approach in sociological theory because it provides clear and testable hypotheses about social behavior. By reducing social phenomena to simpler explanations, reductionist theories can make it possible to predict how individuals will behave in specific social situations. This has important implications for social policy and can be useful in designing interventions aimed at promoting positive social outcomes.

However, reductionism has also been criticized for its oversimplification of complex social phenomena. Critics argue that social behavior cannot be reduced to a single factor or explanation, and that a more holistic approach is needed to fully understand social behavior.

The challenge for sociologists is to strike a balance between reductionism and holism. While reductionism can provide useful insights into social behavior, it is important to take into account the complexity of social phenomena and to consider a variety of factors when analyzing social behavior.

Homans and the fallacy of "misplaced concreteness".

The concept of "misplaced concreteness" was introduced by the British philosopher Alfred North Whitehead to criticize the tendency to treat abstract concepts as if they were concrete entities. In sociology, the concept has been used to criticize the work of George Homans, a prominent sociologist who is best known for his work on social exchange theory.

Homans' social exchange theory posits that individuals engage in social interactions in order to maximize rewards and minimize costs. According to Homans, individuals make rational calculations about the costs and benefits of social interactions and are motivated to engage in interactions that are likely to result in positive outcomes.

Critics of Homans' theory, including C. Wright Mills, have argued that it is guilty of the fallacy of misplaced concreteness. They argue that Homans' theory reduces complex social interactions to a simple calculation of rewards and costs, ignoring the complex social, cultural, and historical factors that shape social behavior.

By reducing social interactions to a simple calculation of rewards and costs, Homans' theory neglects the importance of social context, power relations, and subjective meanings. It also fails to account for the ways in which social interactions can be shaped by historical and cultural factors.

In response to these criticisms, some scholars have argued that social exchange theory can be modified to take into account the complex social factors that shape social behavior. They suggest that social exchange theory can be combined with other theoretical perspectives, such as symbolic interactionism, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of social interactions.

Overall, the concept of "misplaced concreteness" has been used to criticize the reductionist tendencies of some sociological theories, including social exchange theory. While these criticisms are important, it is also important to recognize the contributions of these theories and to work towards developing more comprehensive and nuanced approaches to understanding social phenomena.

The utility of Homan's reductionist strategy. 

George Homans' reductionist strategy, which involves reducing complex social phenomena to simple calculations of rewards and costs, has been both praised and criticized in sociology.

On the one hand, Homans' strategy has been praised for its ability to provide clear and testable hypotheses about social behavior. By reducing social interactions to a simple calculation of rewards and costs, Homans' theory makes it possible to predict how individuals will behave in specific social situations. This has important implications for social policy and can be useful in designing interventions aimed at promoting positive social outcomes.

Furthermore, Homans' strategy has been credited with helping to establish the field of social exchange theory, which has become an important theoretical framework in sociology. Social exchange theory has been used to explain a wide range of social phenomena, including social support, cooperation, and conflict.

On the other hand, Homans' reductionist strategy has been criticized for neglecting important social, cultural, and historical factors that shape social behavior. Critics argue that social behavior cannot be reduced to a simple calculation of rewards and costs, and that complex social phenomena require a more nuanced approach.

Moreover, some scholars have argued that Homans' approach can be overly deterministic, suggesting that social behavior is determined solely by rational calculations of rewards and costs. This neglects the role of subjective meanings and interpretations, and the influence of social context and power relations.

Overall, while Homans' reductionist strategy has been criticized for its oversimplification of complex social phenomena, it has also contributed to the development of important theoretical frameworks in sociology. The challenge for sociologists is to build on these frameworks while also taking into account the complex social, cultural, and historical factors that shape social behavior.

Homans's explanation of Golden's law

Golden's law is a principle in social exchange theory that states that the more alternatives a person has, the lower the value of any given reward becomes. George Homans used this principle to explain why individuals in a group may be less motivated to contribute to the group's success when there are many other groups that offer similar rewards.

According to Homans, when an individual has many alternatives available, the rewards offered by any single group become less valuable because the individual can easily find similar rewards elsewhere. As a result, the individual may be less motivated to contribute to the group's success, since the potential benefits of doing so may be outweighed by the costs of time and effort.

Homans argued that Golden's law helps explain why groups may experience difficulty in motivating their members to contribute to the group's success, particularly in situations where there are many other groups competing for members' time and attention. He suggested that groups may need to find ways to differentiate themselves from other groups and offer unique rewards in order to motivate their members to contribute to the group's success.

Overall, Homans' use of Golden's law illustrates the importance of understanding the value of rewards in social exchange theory and the ways in which the availability of alternatives can influence individuals' motivations to contribute to group success.